Problem, Aims And Plan Of Study - Free Essay Example

Introductory orientation Truancy is about learners who have not been attending school regularly as required by the school, parents and even the authorities. Truant behavior is a problem for the individual, the family, the school and society in general. Free and compulsory education is recognized as a basic entitlement under international standards, including the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989) and the European Convention on Human Rights (1950). With the right to free education and the obligation corresponding to this right observed and enforced through a national emphasis on school attendance, The National Statistic Office (Malta) states that in the 2004/2005 scholastic year the figure for school absenteeism accounted for 7.7% of the total number of school days in the reference period or an overall absence rate of 9.2 absent days per pupil that for boys being 10.0 days per pupil and for girls 8.4 days per pupil. As a teacher this makes me fretful about students missing school as this can be associated with subsequent emotional and psychosocial problems in early adulthood and is a predictor of multiple problems (Fogelman Hibbert, 1990). Truancy may have both short and long term effects on society. There is evidence that truancy is linked to delinquent behaviour and juvenile crime (Collins, 1998; Reid, 1999). According to Jones (1996), Absenteeism is a sign of trouble that often leads to lower academic skills and grades, delinquency, and dropouts. Studies have shown that high school dropouts are twice as likely to be unemployed and on welfare, and overall, tend to be facing a more difficult life than their graduating counterparts. Jones (1996; p.128), All members who form part of any educational institution cannot allow these students to give up on themselves. We as a modern, fast developing society, we cannot afford to let them surrender. It is clearly far less expensive to educate them than pay for a lifetime of welfare and all of the deprivations that welfare represents. These are ominous issues, which imply that the number of students who skip school is rising and that school absenteeism is a new generations behaviour that is today a dramatic social phenomenon. This proposal drafts the intent to investigate and explore realities of how truancy manifests with Maltese youth and also explore the psychosocial world of truants in Maltese schools. Problem Analysis The Pre-Scientific Problem awareness As a supply teacher for these past five years, I have witnessed incidences of truancy in the period 2006 to 2009. One of the common truancy reducation measures used was to lock the school gates during lessons and breaks and open them after school hours (my personal exsperience). Despite the limited impact on truancy reducation, the approach of locking gates is still common and evident in some secondary schools. I found locked gates while visiting some of the schools. Gangsters, to control late coming and to stop learners from dodging classes, locked gates to prevent trespassing, sepecially. Exploring the problem Incidence and nature of truancy Malta Since 1946 education has been compulsory for all children between six to fourteen years and extended to the age of 16 by the Education Act (Malta) of 1971. Maltese law imposes a duty on parents to ensure that their children of compulsory school age receive appropriate education, whether through attendance at a state or independent school. If they fail to do so, without any reasonable excuse and if found guilty, they are liable to a fine not exceeding in previous currency one Maltese Lira (equivalent to à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬2.33) for each day during which the offence continues, unless the parent fails to give a good and sufficient explanation within three days from the date he or she receives a notice from the Director of Education (Malta Education Act 1988). From January 2001 up to December 2002 there were 8,903 arraignments before the local tribunals in connection with school absenteeism (Grech, 2002). This figure represents only the number of students who were absent from school without a valid reason on more than three occasions in the time frame of a month. It is a known fact that there are a number of students that systematically plan three days off from school each month, just for the sake that they use their monthly absence allowance and knowing that in this way their parents would not receive a citation. Surveys show that the overall absence rate between 25th September 2000 to 31st March 2001 stood at 10.5 days per pupil (NSO Malta, 2001). This figure reveals an increase of 5.2% over 1999/2000 scholastic year (NSO Malta, 2001). Thus it shows that during this period, 657,604 pupil days were lost to absenteeism and authorised absence due to sickness. Indeed, the Clark Report (2005) shows concern for the increase in unauthorised absenteeism with parental consent, particularly in state secondary schools which cater, in the main, for a student population coming from a working- class background. Family problems, psychological problems, illnesses, school phobia and bullying have, significantly, been indicated by the Clark focus group to be the topmost reasons contributing to school avoidance. Some Overseas Countries Most of the research conducted abroad seems to provide information regarding the nature and extent of truancy in secondary schools. Results of a study conducted at a school in London from 1985 to 1987 revealed that 70% of the sampled pupils admitted truanting during the three-year period (Stoll, 1990:22). In the study that involved nine secondary schools, 66% of the 765 fifth year pupils admitted truanting (ibid). Figures on truancy in 150 English secondary schools revealed that 31% of pupils in years 10 and 11 admitted that they played truant or skipped lessons (OKeefe Stoll, 1995:12). Gray and Jesson (1990:25) report about the major national survey results of truancy in English secondary schools. According to this study, 23% of all fifth year pupils were involved in truant behavior and they were less likely to stay on in full-time education. Furthermore, schools facing serious problems of truancy tend to be in the inner city rather than in other areas (ibid). on the other hand, Collins (1998:26) reports that absentee rates vary between schools in the London Education Authority. Munn and Johnstone (1992:4) found that out of a sample of 50 Scottish secondary schools, 18% of the pupils (11% in June and 7% in November) were classified as truants and were mostly form the senior years. These figures exclude truants within the school day, as 14 schools reported that they did not keep period attendance records (ibid). Truancy has long been a subject for research in various parts of the USA. According to Nelson (1972:98), 64% of the 591 students surveyed identified themselves as class truants. Learners habitually play truant each day in Los Angeles, Pittsburg and Milwaukee (Black, 1996:33). Bos, Ruiters and Visscher (1992:393) found that the average rate of truancy in 36 schools in the four Dutch cities studied was 4.4% and that truancy increased with the level of the class in almost all schools. Some researchers further indicate that truancy does not necessarily mean missing the whole day of school but found that I could be in the form of missing a part of a day or particular lesson (Kilpartick, 1998:31; Reid, 1999:91). In a study conducted by Malan in South Africa (1972:144), 2,738 out of 69,908 pupils were identified by their teachers as truants. Masithela (Masithela, 1992:33) observed that learners tend to miss lessons during the first and second periods, as well as during the last give periods. The tendency of missing certain lessons towards the end of the school day shows that some form of hidden truancy is prevalent and that pupils can be marked present in the register but fail to attend all lessons (ibid:45). On the other hand, they may come late and be marked absent or be somewhere on the school premises not attending certain lessons or periods, but still be marked as being present on the class resisters. Factors associated with truancy Malta Truancy is about learners who have not been attending school regularly as required by the school, parents and even the authorities. Tyerman (1968) defines the term truant as the child who is absent from school purely on his or her own initiative. Gabb (1994) includes in his definition of truant, that a child who is absent with leave given by his or her parents, or who are actually kept at home by the parents. Hersov (cited in Gabb, 1994) goes still further, dividing from truants, school phobics and school refusers. King (2001) furthermore defines school refusal/school phobics as a difficulty to attend school due to emotional distress, especially anxiety and depression. Fenech (1991) (in an unpublished research) defines absenteeism as being away from lessons for any period of time and for reasons not considered as legitimate, with or without the parents knowledge (p.3). She goes on to include physical presence without any attention being given to a lesson in progress [as well as] masked or selective truancy (ibid., p.3). Fenech (ad. lib.) refers to the latter as skiving off specific lessons or disappearance after registration (p.3) remarking that a number of sources consider absenteeism and truancy synonymous. Sultana (1997), like Fenech (1991), defines absenteeism as staying away from school for reasons not justified by the law (p. 355). However, she goes on to include other less overt ways (ibid., p 355) such as what Willis (1977) calls participating in informal mobility (ibid., p. 355). This includes not entering the class for lesson, intentionally staying in another class, leaving the class without permission, or staying in class without bothering to follow the lesson. Studies conducted abroad When seen from a psychological viewpoint, truancy may be symptomatic of learns who are insecure and have low academic achievement levels and low self-esteem. Lewis (1995:37) states that attendance difficulties my broadly result from a combination of pull and push factors. Pull factors are personal and social aspects that pull a learner out of school. The pull factors may be related to the psychological indices mentioned by Reid (2002:11), such as maladjustment, a lower general level of self-esteem and academic self concept, anxiety and lower career aspirations. Factors that push learners away from school include academic and classroom aspects such as inapproachability of the teaching staff, incomprehensible teaching style and inappropriate classroom management. Other factors relating to the school and the classroom include bullying, the curriculum, boring lessons (Reid, 1999:91), teachers humiliating remarks (Porteus, Clacherty, Mdiya, Pelo, Matsai, Qwabe and Donald 2000:11), poor record-keeping and school organization (Bimler Kirkland, 2001:90; Coldman, 1995:29). According to Pappas (1996:1), truancy is often symptomatic of family dysfunction, since the parents of truants tend to be permissive, undisciplined and unavailable. Some authors believe that truancy is associated with a poor socio-economic background, including poverty, poor housing and unemployment (Bell, Rosen and Dynlacht, 1994:204; Tyerman, 1958:222). Some researchers state that there is a link between truancy and delinquent behavior (Collins, 1998:38; Brown, 1998:298-299; Reid, 1999:25). Truancy differentiated from school phobia There is a need to distinguish between truancy and school phobia. The concept school phobia describes a learner who is unwilling to attend school and stays at home with the knowledge of parents (Wicks and Nelson, 2000:123). A learners problem often stats with a vague complaint or reluctance to attend school and progresses to total refusal to go to school. Blagg (1992:121) asserts that school phobia may be induced by fear-arousing aspects of school, such as fear of failure caused by anxiety about meeting the standards. Fear may also be related to worries about the health and welfare of parents (Blagg, 1992:123). In the other hand, a learner who plays truant misses the whole school day or lessons without the knowledge of parents or caregivers. Furthermore, a truant tends to be involved in various forms of anti social behavior (Blagg, 1992:121). Milner and Blyth (1999:18) acknowledge the difficulties involved in studying the prevalence and pattern of truancy and in comparing current and past school attendance or absence. The difficulties are partly compounded by the variations in the definition of truancy itself (Boyd, 1999:22; Gabb, 1997:2) and the multifaceted nature of truancy (Edward and Malcolm, 2001:1; Reid, 1999:17). The problems associated with studies on truancy should, however, not prevent further research from being conducted. Solutions should be found, or the cause at least eliminated, because truancy is regarded as a serious problem with socio-economic implications. A preliminary review of the literature reveals that truancy is a major problem form schools and society and a most powerful predictor of juvenile delinquent behavior (Van Petegem, 1994:272; Wiehe, 2000). Reid (2002:2) maintains that the amount of money spent on truancy reduction initiatives proves the extent of truancy. Statement of the problem Data on the extent and nature of truancy in schools are often based on information obtained from class registers. This information may be inadequate or almost incomplete and limits the understanding of the phenomenon, thus making it difficult to develop appropriate intervention strategies. More insight on how truancy manifests is needed to provide a base on which to suggest, plan and develop effective intervention strategies. Therefore, further research is needed to enable education officials, schools, parents and other professionals to manage learners with attendance difficulties more efficiently. This study serves to bridge the information gap regarding the nature of truancy and to provide a picture of the life world of truants in Secondary Schools. Aims of the Research The General Aim The aim would be to describe truancy in general as stated in the literature and to conduct an empirical study in order to determine how truancy behaviour manifests in secondary schools and what the life world of truants looks likes. The findings can then be used to inform and guide future practice. The Specific aim The aim of the study would be to gather information that will be used to guide the school (college) community namely the SMT, form teachers, subject teachers, guidance teachers and school councillors, youth workers in school and other stakeholders to help in the interventional approaches and procedures that can be used for reducing truancy. In order to realise the above aims, the following questions are set to direct the research: What is the extent and degree of truancy in terms of the frequency and number of learns involved? What are the patterns, type or nature of truancy? Where do truants go when not at school or in class? What measures are used to monitor and manage truancy? Research Method The study will comprise two methods, namely, a literature study and an empirical investigation. A study of the literature will derive information on studies about poor school attendance and procedures employed to mange or reduce truancy from books, research articles, journals and other resources. A quantitative research design will be used in the empirical investigation. This investigation aims to gather data by means of a questionnaire that will be given to learns in Form 1 and Form 2 in eight randomly selected schools, , incorporating two Junior Lyceums, two Area Secondary and two Church schools. A qualitative research design will be used with guidance teachers, counselors, youth workers, form teachers, Assistant Head of Schools and Heads of School currently working in schools. A focus group and interviews with Heads will help me to investigate what the School community is doing to combat truancy. Such data will be advantageous in that they are the most adequate [tool] to capture how a person thinks of a particular domain (Goldsmiths Collage, n.d.). More over since a face to face rapport with the interviewee, it is induced to continue questioning the subject in order to confirm the hypothesis about his or her beliefs, seeking appraise any underlying meaning in the process. Demarcation of research Due to time constraints, the preset research is confined to then 8 randomly selected secondary schools in Malta. A list of all secondary schools was compiled to allow for the random selection of 8 schools, which will form part of this study. This sample was mainl cohosen on the basis of cost implicaitons and accessibility. Explanation of concepts In this section a number of concepts that are relevant to this research are defined. Truancy Reids (1999:1) asserts that the term truancy is often misused and can be applied both generically and with a local meaning. In the different parts of Great Britain, truancy is known as dodging, skipping off, mitching, skiving, bunking off and going missing, respectively. Whitney (1994:49) defines truancy as absence that has not been authorized by the school and where leave has not been given or approved. Another definition provided by Collins (1998:2), who states that truancy is about pupils who have been registed with a school but identified as not attending school when the law says they should. This definition includes absences from a particular lesson or lessons, known as post-registation truancy (Gabbs, 1994:5; Stoll, 1990:23). Clark Report (2005) identify as truancy when a student is voluntarily absent or not attending school without their parents permission and often, awareness (Anglicare, Werribee Family Services 2000). Truancy is defined as unjustifiable or unexplained absence from school with attempts by the student to conceal the absenteeism. Usually the child avoids home when not at school and the parents are often unaware of the childs absence (Rollings, King, Tonge, Luk, Heyne, Ramsdell, Burdett Martin, 1999). The concept blanket truancy refers to absence from the whole school day, which is usually reflected on the class register, while post-registration truancy occurs when the learner is marked present but fails to turn up at a lesson or lessons (Stoll, 1990:23). In this research, the term truancy is broadly defined as unauthorized absence from school. The definition is adopted with the assumption that absence with the knowledge and permission of the school and parents or guardians does not constitute truancy. Since the study seeks to explore the type of truancy as manifested at secondary schools, both concepts of truancy (blanket and post-registration) are relevant and will be investigated. A Truant A truant is a child aged 6 17 years old who absents himself or herself form school without a legitimate reason and without permission of his or her parents or the school official (Schaefer and Millman, 1981: 335). For the purpose of this research, a truant refers to a learner who, after being registered at a school, absents himself or herself from school or lessons without a legitimate reson or permission from parents or the school official. The traditional or typical truant: Traditional truants tend to be isolated that come from an unsupportive home background, possibly with a tendency to be shy. It is likely that they will have a low self-concept, be introverted and be the citim of their social circumstances. The psychological truant: could be the school phobic (school refusal) case but more othen than this psychological truant miss school for psychological related factors such as illness, opsychomatric complaints, laziness, a fear of attending scholl for any reason (such as dislike of a teacher, a lesson, an impending confrontation or fear of bullying.) The Institutional truant: Institutional truants are more likely to indulge in on the spur of the moment absences from lessons and to be selective about days or lessons to miss. Secondary School A school that admits or registers and educates learners in Form 1 Form 5 is known as a secondary school. Life World In this research, the term life world refers to the psychological context this is made up of elements such as interpersonal aspects, the family, school and the broader community. According to this definition, the life world involves the personal and external world of the learner. The personal word refers to intrinsic factors. The external word is made up of the broader educational systems, the home environment and the community where the child spends his time when not at school. Relevant intervention strategies would be easier to suggest if the contextual issues related to the phenomenon under investigations are understood. Research Program The research comprises give chapters, as follows: CHAPTER 1 In this chapter, the background information in the seriousness and implication of truancy are discussed. The chapter also includes an analysis of the problem, the problem statement, aims of the study, description of the research method and definition of the concepts. CHAPTER 2 Chapter 2 entails a review of the literature on types of truancy and the causes of truancy or contributing factors in different countries, including in Malta. Different approaches that the various countries and schools use to manage truancy will also be discussed. CHAPTER 3 This chapter deals with research designs and methods. A discussion of the research problem, the aim of the empirical investigation, the research tool used in the study and the selection of the sample will be included. Details of the compilation and administration of questionnaires as well as an analysis of data will be presented. CHAPTER 4 In this chapter, the results of questionnaires will be presented. The results will be analyzed to find answers to the research questions. CHAPTER 5 The chapter entails a summary of the research finding, conclusions and recommendations. A summary of the results from the literature study and the limitation of the study will be included. Conclusion This chapter focuses on the background and analysis of the problem, as well as the aims of the study. An attempt will be made to explain the research method used, relevant concepts and planned programmes of the research. The next chapter will contain the review of the literature on the types of truancy, factors contributing to truancy behavior, the rate and extent of truancy and the strategies used to manage truancy. CHAPTER 2 TYPES OF TRUANCY, CAUSAL FACTORS AND APPROACHES USED IN THE MANAGEMENT AND REDUCTION OF TRUANCY Introduction According to Tyerman (1958:217), truancy has been a problem to all concerned with education since 1870s. Approximately 750 children were charged for truancy in England and Wales in 1954 (ibid: 220). This figure could have been an underestimation as it was based on learners who were referred to courts, and therefore represented mainly incorrigible truants (ibid). Furthermore, the figure gives a general picture of truanting children in one country only and without an indication whether it was absence from certain lessons or whole school day absence. Truancy is currently a problem in communities. In Clarks report concern was expressed about truancy among school children. Data presented in this report indicates that non-attendance exists, and has become an issue of increasing concern for schools, educational and student welfare organizations. Non-attendances viewed as being among one of the key problems facing some schools. There is increasing concern for the seemingly large number of ch ildren and young people, who are, for a range of reasons, missing out on the benefits of education and possibly on a better future (Dr. L. Galea, The Times 9th February, 2005). Non-attendance can be the beginning of countless problems for students who regularly miss out on school (Heyne, King, Tonge, Rollings, Pritchard Young,1999). The extent and nature of truancy are best understood in terms of whether it implies absence for the whole day or during a particular lesson. This chapter deals with how blanket and post-registration truancy manifest, the causal factors and various measures of reducing truancy in secondary schools. Blanket Truancy Perspectives in various countries England and Wales Normab (2001:49) states that 50,000 children play truant on a normal school day in England. The number of truants increases steadily with age and most truants are found at secondary school (ibid). This confirms past research findings about the existence of truancy in secondary school in some parts of England. Gray and Jesson (1990:25) gathered information on the incidence of truancy from the youth cohort survey of England and Wales. The result of their survey shows that 6% of final-year secondary school learners reported to have played truant for several days or weeks at a time. Malcolm, Wilson, Davidson and Kirk (2003:50) state as follows: In 1999, the Audit Commission noted that at least 40,000 of the 400,000 learners absent from school are truanting. Scotland In a study done at 50 Scottish secondary schools, it was found that 30% to 33% of learners had been playing truant at least once in the survey week (Munn and Johnston, 1992:38). These schools were requested to provide both the overall attendance rate and the numbers of learners (ibid). Australia Haddon (1996:110), citing a comprehensive study conducted in Victorian secondary schools in Australia, states that 40% to 60% of learners of compulsory school age reported that they engaged in truancy. Cohen and Ryan (1998:12) state that about 10,000 learners in Tasmania play truant at least one day a week. The Netherlands The research done at 36 schools in four Dutch cities indicates that the average level of truancy at all schools was 4.4% (Bos, Ruiters and Visscher, 1992:393). The average percentage of allowed absence was 4.7%, therefore suggesting that learners in most schools are just as often absent with a valid reason as without one. United States of America It appears that truancy is a problem in American schools, although at varying levels. According to Black (1996:33), approximately 2,500 and 4,000 learners play truant on a daily basis in Pittsburg and Mulwaukee, repectively, while 300,000 of the 1.6 million students in Los Angeles are habitual truants. This shows that some learners stay absent without permission every day and that a day never goes by with a recording of 100% attendance. Truancy is so much of a concern that the Department of Education has prepared a manual that gives schools some guidelines on how to reduce it (United States Department of Education, 1996). Malta From January 2001 up to December 2002 there were 8,903 arraignments before local tribunals in connection with school absenteeism (Grech, 2002). This figure represents only the number of students who were absent from school without a valid reason on more than three occasions in the space of a month. It is a known fact that there are a number of pupils that systematically take three days off from school each month just for the sake that they use up their monthly absence allowance and knowing that in this way their parents would not receive a citation. Survey results issued by the National Statistics Office Malta on December 16, 2002 showed that overall absence rate from schools between September 25, 2000 and March 31, 20001, stood at 10.5 days per pupil. That included both absenteeism and authorized absence (such as those due to sickness). During this period, 657,604 pupil days were list to absenteeism, accounting for 8.9 per cent of the total pupil days. This reveals an increase of 5. 2 per cent over the 1999/2000 scholastic year. Absences in government schools stood at 19.12 days per pupil whereas that of government dependent (church schools) and independent private schools was 5.76 days per pupil. The rate of truancy in terms of gender Some of the overseas researchers state that there is no difference in the levels of truancy reported for males and females (Gray and Jesson, 1990:26; Haddon, 1996: 110; Smith, M., 1996:226; Stoll, 1994:36; Whitney, 1994: 59). Recent research on truancy in the seven local education authorities reports that the numbers of learners in secondary school admitting truancy was almost equal for boys and girls (Malcolm et al., 2003:31). Coldman (1995:68) also states that the variation that exists in truancy levels of males and females is slight. It is, therefore, apparent that some research are in agreement with regard to the truancy levels of male and females learners. Earlier research that was conducted in South Africa suggests that more males than females tend to play truant Coldman (1995:68) warns against making assumptions and generalisations about the existence of gender differnce in truancy levels. He argues that observed findings might result from the fact that some schools have more males than females, particularly when one is dealing with a large sample. What the above studies suggest about truancy levels of males and females is that the difference might be slight, if it does exist. Furthermore, observed diffrenences may be incfluenced by other variables, such as the enrolled number of male and female learners in a sample. Truancy rate according to the geographical location of the school Serious truancy is said to be more prevalent in inner-city secondary schools in England (Gray and Jesson, 1990:36; Stoll, 1990:23). Munn and Johnstone (1992:4) also found that the Scottish school with the highest percentage of unauthorized absence was all in the inner city. Coldman (1995:69) asserts that claims that truancy is a problem mainly experienced in inner city schools are disputable, since another survey showed that the truancy level is high even in the suburban, rural and industrial areas of England. It may therefore be purely speculation, without much supporting evidence, to suggest that inner-city school experience higher levels of truancy. Hard evidence needs to be gathered, where possible, in order to verify the claim that inner-city experience higher rates of truancy. According to some researchers, truancy levels also appear to differ from school to school, since they may be more prevalent in schools than in others (Blackm 1996:33; Bos et al., 1992:385; Gray and Jesson, 1990:26; OKeefe and Stoll, 1995:12). It is therefore apparent that the levels of truancy seem to vary from country to country, and in some cases, also in terms of geographical locations within a city or town. The literature indicates that blanket truancy is common in many secondary school and that, in some cases, learners play truant on a daily basis. The levels of blanket truancy can also vary according to regional locations within the same country. In the next section, the evidence regarding the level of post-registration truancy drawn from the literature will be discussed. Post-registration Truancy Very little information is given in the literature about national trends of post-registration truancy in countries where research on truancy was conducted. Most of the studies conducted in the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States and some parts of Europe mainly appear to be either school-based or done on a small scale. The Extent of post registration truancy Gary and Jesson (1990:26) report that about 10% of the final-year secondary school learners in England admitted that they played truant during particular lessons. On the other hand, 6% of the learners were involved in blanket truancy, meaning that the rate of post-registration truancy was higher. Stoll (1990:23) conducted research at nine secondary schools and found that the rate of post-resgistration truancy was high at one the schools. Smith, M. (1996:228) also found that the post-registration truancy figure was high in the 12 Hertfordshire school that took part in the research, even though attendance levels appeared to be good. According to Stokes and Walton (1999:88), 20% of the 1,379 learners in Grade 9 to 11 at five schools in Leeds admitted that they engaged in poast registration truancy. When are learners likely to stay away from lessons? According to Coldman (1995:31), about 15% of all truants go absent after registration and thoses learners do not all miss the same lessons. Kilpatrick (1998:31) found that the absence rate increased rapidly during the day and was highest during the afternoon. It is therefore apparent that learners are more likely to leave after being marked present in the register, and to skip some of the afternoon lessons. This research shows that learners may attend all morning lessons but decide not to return to class after recess. How often do learners engage in post registration truancy? Coldman (1995:31) asserts that truants miss lessons several times per week. Most learners commonly use the term bunk when they refer to playying truant. At times, the word skipping is used instead when learners are absent from school or lessons without permission. Learners can therfore bunk certain lessons more than once per week. Some learners can be classified as occasiohal truants in the sense that they bunk class aout ibce every two weeks or choose a different class each time Kilpatrick (1998:31). There is also an opinion that truancy could start with a small number of missed lessons and escalte rapidly (Pasternicki, 1993:33). Research done at one secondary school in Austrialia shows that an improvement in attendance as shown in classs registers may be a change to post-registration truancy (Kilpatrick, 1998:33). This means that, if the registers does not indicate records of attendance during lessons, learners who engage in post registration truancy will be marked present as if they were in class for the whole school day. Learners may then come to school on a regular basis, but miss some lessons without being marked absent. One would then look at the register and think that attendance has improved when it has, in fact, changed to post registration truancy. What is evident thus far is that post registration truancy can easily develop into blanket truancy if it is not easily identified and appropriately managed and that when a register shows marked improvedment in attendance it m ay in fact be indicative of hidden truancy. Which lessons are most learners likely to skip? There are various ways of determining the lessons most learners are likely to skip. Some knowledge of the extent of truancy per subject is derived from research questions which asked learners to state their most favorite and least favorite school subject (Smith, M, 1996:231). Sometimes educators returns on discrepancies between the daily attendance sheet and actual in-class attendance are used (Kilpartrick, 1998:29). On the other hand, Bos et al. (1992:383) asked educators to complete a standard form to record the actual as well as the expected number of learners present per subject during lessons and used these data to calculate truancy percentages. Survey results collected from eight schools in London, Liverpool and Manchester between 1985 and 1994 reveal that Mathematics and Science are lessons that are most frequently missed by both male and female learners (Le Riche, 1995:19). In a study conducted by Smith, M. (1996:231), Mathematics was considered the least popular subject and, in fact, ranked first among the most unpopular subjects. Mathematics and English were least favoured by learners in some schools in Leeds (Stoke Walton 1999:90). Recent research conducted in some secondary schools within the London Education Authority (LEA) indicated that learners play truant during certain lessons. However, the sampled subjects often make no mention of the particular school subject or lessons missed. For instance, Malcolm et al. (2003:33) state that learners skip lessons, but only gave the following answer by a learner: Sometime when Im at school I go to the first lesson but dont go the second and third, if its boring and friends are leading me on at the time. What the above quote suggests is that it may be difficult to determine particular subjects that learners are most likely to skip because learners also succumb to the influence of friends and boredom and may not always skip the same lesson. Research shows that secondary-school learns in South Africa do engage in truant behaviour occasionally, and sometimes on a regular basis (Brown, 1998:298), although no figures appear to be reported about the real extent of post-registration truancy. The information cited in this section of the literature review indicates that some secondary-school learners engage in post-registration truancy. It has also been found that post-registration truancy may go undetected or unrecognized, since truants do not all miss the same lessons (Coldman, 1995:31; Stokes Walton, 1999:90). Post-registration truancy might even be higher than it is assumed to be. The data further show that learners are selective in the sense that they choose to skip some lessons for various reasons, which will be elaborated upon later in the next section. Given the complexity of the way in which truant behaviour can manifest, it may be reasonable to suggest that attendance rates indicated in a class register should be viewed with caution, particularly when it comes to post-registration absence. Do learners engage in both types of truancy? Some researchers stat that post-registration truancy is more common (Coldman, 1995:30; OKeefe and Stoll, 1995:11; Stokes and Walton 1999:90; Whitney, 1994:59), although many truants engage in both types (Milner and Blyth, 1999:18). According to an earlier study of English secondary schools, 26% of the students admitted to their engagement in post-registration truancy, while 14% said they engaged in both types of truancy (Stoll, 1995:36). There is therefore an indication that a certain number of learners engage in both types of truancy in some schools. Where do learners go when not at school or attending lessons? In order to understand and manage the phenomenon of truancy better, the authorities need to know where truants spend their time when not attending school or lessons. Learners appear to engage in various activities while truanting. It was found that some watch television at home while not at school (Le Riche, 1995:25), and either remain in the school building or leave the school premises altogether when not attending lessons. According to Stokes and Walton (1999:89), 25% of the learners report that they went to their own homes or friends homes, while 45% kept their destinations secret by choosing the other category. Given the figures mentioned above, it is possible that more learners spend time in homes watching television than assumed; some go to local shops or town while others engage in activities they will not easily disclose. Research information collected from a group of schools indicates that existence of various types of truancy. Perhaps it would be possible to get some objective information about the destinations of truants from other classmates of friends instead of posing direct questions to those who admit to have played truant. It is evident that explaining the nature of truant behaviour is complex exercise particularly when it comes to post-registration absence. What can be said about the phenomenon of truancy with reference to the literature is that learners can miss the whole school day or certain lessons and classes, or both. Further, skipping the whole school day or class could be occasional, thus concealing the extent of the problem. The extent of both blanket and post-registration truancy is further hidden when class registration is inappropriately done when period or lesson attendance records are not kept. Perspectives on factors that contribute to truancy Many perspectives on factors that make learners play truant are based on images and certain assumptions researchers have about the learner. Carlen, Gleeson and Wardhaugh (1992:85) identified four of those perspectives. Each of them focuses on some researches theories about the main cause of truancy, as discussed in the section below. Personality aspects According to this perspective, truancy relates to variously identified personality aspects of the learner (Carlen et al., 1992:85). Personality is defined as the individuals psychological, physical and spiritual characteristics that determine his behaviour in contexts in which he finds himself (Meyer and Viljoen, 2003:11). Therefore, the contributing causes of truancy are intrinsic and located with the learner. Some of the personal attributes if truanting learners that have identified in the literature are the following: Anxiety and fear In a South African study aimed at predicting truancy, Nel (1975: 125) found that truants tend to be more anxious and experience more stress related to frustration than non truants. It appears that this study is consistent with research finding where High School Personality Questions (HSPQ) test results revealed that truants are more sensitive and emotionally less stable than non truants (Malan, 1972: 147). This further confirms earlier research conducted among truants in England, which shooed that truants tend to be insecure and anxious (Tyerman, 1958:223). The concept of anxiety is often associated with psychoanalytical theory. According to the psychoanalytical theory of Freud, reality anxiety is fear about the actual dangers in the environment (Meyer and Viljoen, 2003:61). In terms of this theory, truancy can be regarded as a response that a learner adopts in an effort to avoid a potentially anxiety provoking situation or event. A learners fear of a threatening situation at school makes him play truant. Truancy is therefore a flight response or defense mechanism. According to Gillis (1992:13), young people tend to use defense mechanisms when dealing with awkward situations, some of which are discussed in the next sections. Poor social skills Poor social skills and a lack of confidence are also factors that contribute to truancy (Edward and Malcolm 2001:2). Lewis (1995:37) asserts that boredom, isolation and lack of friends may be pull factors that pull a learner off school. As stated in the previous chapter, pull factors are personal aspects within the learners, which may include shyness, a tendency to become easily distracted or bored, and perhaps an inability to make friends. It appears that an inability to cope with the demands of making friends triggers a strong impulse to escape from the anxiety provoking situation, thus leading to truancy. This means that some learners respond to a socially challenging or emotionally threatening situation at school by playing truant. Another school-based factor concerns bullying. Child psychologist, Lisa Padovani (2005) graphically sums up bullying as follows: Bullying is the willful, conscious desire to hurt, threaten or frighten someone. It can be a single attack on a person by an individual or a group or may be a longstanding campaign. Verbal abuse, taunting, threatening looks, emotional badgering, physical attack and sexual harassment are all forms of direct bully. Bullying may also be indirect; for instance being ignored socially or the spreading of malicious gossip. Bullying therefore is not simply a conflict between children but a case of an imbalance of power. It is an unfair match between bullies who are physically, verbally or socially stronger than victims who are generally unable to defend themselves in the actual situation (p. 26). The Clark Report (2005) reveals that this phenomenon happened when teachers were not around to observe (p. 29), and the reporting such incidents entailed further retaliation by the aggressor. Fenech ties the issue to alternative cultures which clash with the mainstream culture of the school (Bezzina, Camilleri Grima, Purchase and Sultant, 2002, p. 25), consequently constantly landing bullies in trouble with teachers and administration. Finding of Azzopardi and Bondin (1991) and Cassar (1997) reveal that students did not mince their words in admitting that they attended school merely to meet friends and have fun. They rebelled against stringent school rules, and consequently engaged in deviant acts like playing truant, drinking alcohol and smoking on the school premises, as well as bullying (Fenech, 1992). Low Self-esteem Research indicates that certain personality traits, including lower levels of self-esteem, make some learners more prone to absenteeism than their peers Reids (2002:11). However, research conducted by Sommer and Nigel (1991:389) failed to show a link between truancy and low self esteem and to some extent confirmed results obtained earlier in South Africa, where truants studied by Malan (1972:147) tended to be more assertive and dominant than the population. Cicourel and Kituse (cited in Gabb, 1994) look to the structure of relationship within school between teachers and pupils, how these progressively erode the self esteem of working class pupils and produce feelings of inferiority that, again, lead to delinquent behaviour. Ramsay (1983) claims that knowledge is being used as a form of social control. Behind the faÃÆ' §ade of mathematics and English, he argues there is said to be a hidden curriculum to keep working class children in their places. Anti-social behaviour Truancy is mentioned as one of the behaviours that are associated with conduct disorder (Sue, Sue and Sue, 1997:482). Conduct disorder is a diagnostic label used to describe children and adolescents who display a persistent and repetitive pattern of antisocial behaviours that violate the rights of others (ibid). Antisocial behaviours that an individual with conduct disorder displays include defying authorities, lying, fighting, cruelty to animals and people, as well as truant behaviour. Reid (1999:77) asserts that research shows that feelings of alienation from school and higher levels of anti-social behaviour are some of the characteristics displayed by many truants. This suggests that anti social behaviours make some learners more vulnerable to social alienation, in that an individual is likely to be rejected if his behaviour is socially inappropriate, and if he is disruptive. Therefore, a well behaved learner can easily make friends and suffer little isolation, and is more likely to cope with the stresses of schooling. The inability to cope with stresses of schooling, personality problems and social isolation are some of the factors that are identified as driving learners to play truant (Bimler and Kirkland, 2001:91). Scholastic failure Truants tend to perform poorly in examinations. Gray and Jesson (1990:26) state that, in England, secondary-school learners who admitted that they have once engaged in serious levels of truancy were likely to report low levels of exam performance. Learning problems Reid (2002:12) reports that regualr non-attendees are found among learners whose numerancy and literacy scores are two or more years behind their peers in primary school. According to Le Ritchie (1988:78), a lack of academic success creates a sense of frustration and a constant fear of failure. It appears that learners who experinece difficulty with schoolwork often play truant in an attempt to evade frustration. In some cases, learners may have begun to experience difficulty with schoolwork while still at primary school. An inability to cope with academic expectations and demands can contribute to truancy in secondary schools. Truancy appears to be a response to frustration and anxiety associated with difficult lessons. In many instances, lesson difficulty contributes more to post-registration truancy than blanket truancy (Hallam and Roaf, 1995:18; Kilpatrick, 1998:30). According to Smith, M. (1996:229), 80% of learners in a study conducted at twelve secondary schools Cognitive style It is not enough to assume that learners have difficulty with schoolwork and play truant as a result, without investigating how investigating how they learn and process infrormation. Research information on cognitive style provides us with insight into how some truants learn. Cognitive style is defined as a consistent and typical manner in which an individual organises and processes information (Riding and Read, 1996:81). There are two basic dimensions of cignitive style, namely the Wholistic-Analytical style, which indicates an individuals preference for processing information either as a whole or in parts, and the Verbal Imagery style, which shows a tendency to repesent information during thinking either verbally or in mental images (Rayner and Riding, 1996 :447). Rayner and Riding (1996 :447) conducted research on learners who have a condition that is known as school refusal. Learners who have such a condition refuse to attend school but stay at home when not in school, complain about headaches, stomach pains or nausea and show signs of anxiety and depression (Egger, Costello and Angold, 2003:1). In addition, such children tend to be complaint and well behaved, and, unliketruants, they stay at home with the parents; knowledge. Some children tend to di splay characteristics of both school refusal and trauncy (Egger et al., 2003:1). Rayner and Riding (1996:447) undertooik a study on learners with school refusal and found that they also have a well-established history of truancy. The study revealed that these learners tend to process information holisticfally (ibid: 449). This reseach therefore indicates that the congnitive styles of many truants tend to differ from those of learners who are not ruants. Furthermore, an implication of the study is that if educators fail to accommodate the differnet cognitive styles in their teaching, escapist behaviour in the form of truancy is likely to occur. Poor habits arising form initially legitimate reason School factors There is a theory that proposes that truancy is caused by various aspects of the school (Carlen et al., 1992:86). This theory explains truancy as a response to an inadequate education system. It appears that this theory is based on the perception that the schools and the education system in general are lacking, and thus force some learners to reject the very education that is thought to give them a better future. Proponents and supporters of this perspective would therefore argue that what is happening in the schools and the education system in general is what actually makes learners became truants. Inadequacies could be those located in the physical enviromnet, the school climate in terms of the learing and teaching atmosphere and the curriculum, if it is seen asw being irrelevant and not accommodating diversity. The perceived inadequacies in the school might alienate some learners and thus make them freel excluded annd became truants. It is also possible that some learners may have certain attitudes towards aspects of the school such as the buildings, particular subject and educators. Learners may als perceive their value system as contradictory to the values espoused by the national curriculum and thus find that curruculum irrelevant. These contradicting values and attitudes towards the school can create a sense of disaffection that manifests in the form of truancy in some learners. The various factors within the school that most reswearchers have identifed as contributing to truancy are discussed in the next section. Dilapidated school buildings and poor facilities School size movement between classes during lesson changes classroom management Bullying Reid (1999) states that school refuters are sometimes pupils who have been threatened or bullied and are afraid to return to school [bullied victims] prefer to give other reasons for their absence to their parents and/or school rather than face the consequences of reporting the bullies (Pace, 2004, p. 6). On the other hand, children may be so worried about tensions at home (ibid., p. 6) that they feign being bullied at school in an effort to draw attention upon themselves, in the hope of thwarting any unpleasant family plans that are rendering them anxious. Child psychologist, Lisa Padovani (2205) graphically sums up bullying as follows: Bullying is the wilful, conscious desire to hurt, threaten or frighten someone. It can be a single attack on a person by an individual or a group or may be a longstanding campaign. Verbal abuse, taunting, threatening looks, emotional badgering, physical attack and sexual harrassment are all forms of direct bulling. Bullying may also be indrect ; for instance being ignored socially or the spreading of malicious gossip. Bullying therefore is not simply a conflict between bullies who are physically, verbally or socially stronger than victims who are generally unable to defend themselves in the actual situation (p.26). The Clark Report (2005) reveals that this phenomenon happened when teachers were not around to observe (p.29) and that reporting such incidents entailed further retaliation by the aggressor. Fenech ties the issue to alternative culures which clash with the mainstream culuter of the school (Bezzina, Cammilleri, Grima, Purchase and Sultana, 2002, p.25), consequently constangly landing bullies in trouble with teachers and administration. Findings of Azzopardi and Bondin (1991), and Cassar (1997) reveal that students did not mince their words in admitting that they attended school merely to meet friends and have fun. They rebelled against stringent school rules and consequently engaged in deviant acts like playing truant, drinking alohol and smoking on the school premises, as well as bullying (Fenech, 1992). Educator learner relationship Teaching or instructional approach Family and other social factors Socio- economic status of parents Marital Status of parents poor parental involvement and supervision Peer influence Violence and drug use Approaches used in the management and reducation of truancy Personality Aspects Tutoring and mentor systems Counselling and therapy Truanting learners who show signs of having emotional problems relating to poor social skills receive individual and or group therapy (Dais, 1999:2; Harworth and Bardsley, 1999:163). According to MacIidowie (1999:122), attendance increased by 7% in two schools in Kent when the Education Welfare Officers intervention mesures included councelling sessions. Edward and Malcom (2002:2) assert that a learning eviroment that provides support for emotional and social needs is likely to raise the achievement of learners who are at risk of playing truant. The effect of this kind of support is evident in a study of a project at Swanley School, where MacIldowie (1999:123) reports that the attendance pattern of eight of the 12 learners improved significantly as a result of regualr support. It appears that individuals are likely to benefit from sessions where they listen to others with similar experiences and problmes. For instance, the Attendance Officer at Calhoun Intermediate School District re ports that the dropout rate decreased by 10% to 2% when students became involved in the Absence Addict Programme, a support group that is modelled after Alcoholics Anonymous (Rocho, 2003:2). The School It is important to mention that strategies and initiatives that are used at the level of the individual learners also impact on the school in general. The approaches that are discussed in this section mainly address issues pertaining to reducing the impact ofr school factors as a step towrds the management of truancy. Data collected by Chircop (1997) shows that rather than the students or their families, it is the school which is to blame (Sultana, 1997 p.357). Quoting Corrigan (1979), Willis (1977) and Reid (1985), she declares that students absent themselves from school so as to Shelter themselves from what they consider to be an unpleasant experience to challenge the value of schooling itself, and/or to repond to pressures arising from their particular situation as classed and gendered beings and to which the school is insensitive (ibid., p357). The majority of disaffected students she interviewed attributed their non -a ttendance to the labelling processes prevalent in the Maltesed education system which encourages intra and inter school streaming. Selection ipso facto becames an important function of schooling, [and failure, in turn, became inevitable,] since they are required by the system (Sultana, 1997, p. 359). This gives rise to the lowering of teachers expectations and a vicious circle sets in. Eventually, demoralised students end up accepting the powerful labels used by teachers and think of themselces as [failures,] ignorant and incompetent (ibid., p.358). Bencini (2002) claims that children are being forced to sit through a syllabus which is not suited for their personalities: Instead of adapting our schools to students, we are trying to force students to adapt to our schools. WE need to provide students with things they enjoy doing (Zammit, 2003, p.7). Using reinforcement and reward systems Using a variety of intructional approaches Effective monitoring, registration and recording of attendance Welcome back to school Student Welfare In Service training Inter-departmenal cooperation and government intiatives Actung fast on Leraner absence Ordinances Attandeance or truancy officers Prosecuting parents Awareness campaigns Whole-school development Conclusion CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN Introduction The purpose of the study is to investigate the phenomenon of truancy and then to characterize the nature and associated factors, to ensure appropriate management thereof. It is envisaged that, with more insight, effective intervention strategies can be implemented. Furthermore, secondary -education decision -makers may take results into account when school-attendance policies are reviewed. The review of the literature presented in the preceding chapters reveals that secondary school learners continue to play truant and miss the educational opportunities provided by compulsory school regulations. Learners who play limit their own chances of acquiring the necessary skills to prepare themselves for future employment. We also looked at the different types of truancy , casual factors and various approaches that have been used to reduce truancy. This chapter describes the way the empirical study is planned and conducted, and will focus on the following aspects: The general and specific research problems and hypotheses The research method

Emotions in Bipolar - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 974 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/10/30 Category Medicine Essay Level High school Tags: Bipolar Disorder Essay Did you like this example? People with bipolar disorder experience periods of abnormal intense emotion. They also go through changes in sleep patterns, activity levels, and unusual behaviors. These distinct periods are referred to as mood episodes. Mood episodes are drastically different moods and behaviors that are typical for a person. Extreme changes in sleep, energy, and activity, go along with mood episodes. Sometimes a mood episode includes a combination of both manic and depressive symptoms. This is called an episode with mixed features. People experiencing an episode with mixed features may feel terrified, hopeless, or just empty inside while at the same time feeling excessively energized. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Emotions in Bipolar" essay for you Create order Bipolar disorder can exist even when mood swings are less than extreme. Instead of mania, some people with bipolar disorder experience hypomania. During a hypomanic episode an individual may be highly productive and function well, while feeling elated in the mood department. The person may not feel that anything is wrong, but family and friends may recognize the mood swings and changes in activity levels as possible signs of bipolar disorder. Without proper treatment, people with hypomania may develop severe symptoms of mania or depression. DSM-V Numbers Bipolar I disorder has several classifications of numbers in the most current DSM-V manual based off of the severity of behavioral changes and the last time and episode has occurred. If your current or most recent episode was mild with mania, its defined under number 296.41. Mild with depressive: 296.51. Moderate and manic: 296.42. Moderate and depressed: 296.52. Severe with mania: 296.43. Severe with depression: 296.53. If the last episode had shown signs of psychotic features with mania or depression, those are defined under 296.44 and 296.54 respectively. Sections 296.45 and 296.55 cover the stages that are in partial remission but with mania, hypomania, or depression. If the symptoms are in full remission, details can be looked up in 296.46 and 296.56. If the current episode, or the most recent, had shown signs of mania, hypomania, or depression, but all other symptoms and conclusions are unspecified, they are found in the DSM-V manual under numbers 296.40 and 296.50. Bipolar II disorder has only one number: 296.89. The number is usually followed with a status of the current severity, presence of psychotic features, course, and other specifies that cannot be coded. These non-coded inclusions should be indicated in writing after the DSM-V number. For example: 296.89 Bipolar II Disorder, current episode depression, severe with mixed features. Heritability Family studies have shown that bipolar I and II are somewhat genetically distinct. Relatives of bipolar II have a higher risk of also being diagnosed with bipolar II than those patients related to someone with bipolar I. Although these are not etiologically distinct, genetic influences are the stronger predictors of bipolar disorders. An individual who has an identical twin with bipolar disorder has a 70% chance of also having the disorder. A patient with a fraternal twin has more than a 10% probability. Relativity common polymorphisms of genes coding for the serotonin transporter protein and brain derived neurotrophic growth factor may have a small contribution to the development of bipolar disorder. Because of variable findings in these chromosomal regions, it is likely that bipolar disorder is caused by the presence of multiple genes conferring susceptibility through heretics. General acceptance is that bipolar disorder is a disorder with a strong genetic influence, so no specific gene has been identified as the one bipolar gene. Treatments Some bipolar disorder symptoms are similar to other illnesses, which can make it hard for a doctor to diagnose. Many people have bipolar disorder along with another illness such as an eating disorder, anxiety disorder, or substance abuse. People with bipolar disorder are also at a higher risk for thyroid disease, migraines, obesity, heart disease, diabetes, and other physical illnesses. Bipolar disorder is treated using mainly three types of medications: mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and antidepressants. Treatment typically involves a combination of at least one mood stabilizing drug or antipsychotic, plus psychotherapy. Commonly used drugs for bipolar disorder are lithium carbonate and valproic acid. Although doctors still dont know precisely how it works, lithium carbonate has been remarkably effective in reducing mania. Lithium may also prevent the recurrence of depression but its more successful against mania. Some drugs can level out emotions over the long term, and valproic acid is a mood stabilizer that is helpful in treating the manic or mixed phases of bipolar disorder, along with carbamazepine, another antiepileptic drug. These medications may be used alone or in combination with lithium to control any symptoms. Some drugs that are diagnosed can potentially become toxic if the doses are too high. Once prescribed, patients need to be monitored periodically with blood tests and clinical assessments by the prescriber. While medications are usually the foundation of treating bipolar disorder, psychotherapy is also important to help patients understand and accept the personal and social disruptions of past episodes and better cope with future ones. Different forms of psychotherapy have been shown to help speed recovering and improve functioning in bipolar disorder, including cognitive-behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy, family therapy, and group therapy. Because denial is usually an ongoing problem with bipolar disorder, routinely attending psychotherapy can help patients stay on their medications. Conclusion Even though many Americans have been diagnosed with bipolar disorder, and others who are living through life without knowing they have any kind of disorder, bipolar disorder has been shown that with proper techniques, coping mechanisms, therapy, and medications, it can be a manageable disorder to live with. If someone you live with has bipolar disorder, try to maintain a calm environment, and keep to a regular routine for daily activities. More and more drugs are being developed to also help combat any manic or depressive episodes. Even though this disorder can cripple certain people for periods of time, forms of psychotherapy can show patients how to cope with bipolar disorder in order to have a functioning lifestyle and maintain basic everyday activities.

The Caribbean’s Cultural History Essay - 1701 Words

The Caribbean’s Cultural History Columbus’ discovery in 1492 set off a chain of events in the emergence of the Caribbean society, as Knight states in his book The Caribbean. The first voyage of Columbus in 1492 fortuitously discovered a whole new world and set in motion a chain of events whose profound consequences gave new directions to the histories of Europe, Africa, the Americas, and Asia. It was the voyages of Columbus and those who followed him that brought the Americas into the consciousness of the Europeans(Knight 28). Many people question whether the discovery made by Columbus was beneficial or deteriorating for the indigenous people of the Caribbean. It was the exploration and discoveries by Columbus that further led†¦show more content†¦The plantations were an important aspect of the cultural history of the Caribbean. Mintz strongly believed that the plantations helped to shape each colony into what it is now. He suggests that plantations were a way to tie the island to the country that was colonizing it as he states that: the plantation system was an agricultural design for the production of export commodities for foreign markets- a means for introducing agricultural capitalism to subtropical colonial areas, and for integrating those areas with the expanding European economy(Mintz 26). The plantations could also be very useful in leaning more about the history of the people of the island, as Benitez-Rojo states in his essay, From the Plantation to the Plantation. He states that: the plantations serve as a telescope for observing the changes and the continuities of the Caribbean galaxy through the lenses of multifold disciplines, namely economics, history, sociology, political science, anthropology, ethnology, demography, as well as through innumerable practices, which range from the commercial to the military, from the religious literary(Benitiz-Rojo 38). He suggests that the history of the Caribbean and its people is confusing and somewhat jumbled, and feels that the study of the history of each plantation would help to organize the history of the Caribbean. Another commonShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Caribbean Islands1222 Words   |  5 Pagesthem, and the unique individual cultures that were integrated into one. The three authors Sidney W. Mintz, Antonio Benitez-Rojo, and Michelle Cliff, all and address the problem of the Caribbean’s identity. They each discuss how the Caribbean’s diverse culture was created and molded by each individual island’s history, how its society was molded by the development of plantations, how the Caribbean dealt with the issue of slavery, and how miscegenation and the integration of cultures, as a result ofRead MoreAn Analysis Of Jailhouse Boxing, Stato And The 52blocks1522 Words   |  7 Pageshas its roots in Africa (Although they both played some part in its development). To clear up any misconceptions, the Author has put together a pre-history gathered from the stories of its formulation, continuing until the time presented to him. Here is a few dialogues’ from various point s of view. Dialogue I By word of mouth The worded history as past down by most practitioners, states, â€Å"These styles presence can be traced from the Black Diasporas during the Atlantic slave invasion throughRead MoreImpact Of Tourism On The Caribbean2393 Words   |  10 Pagestourism industry has on the countries in the Caribbean. Tourism impacts the Caribbean in three different sections. Tourism has a social impact that allows for increases in revenue, jobs, and service for the people living there. Tourism’s cultural impact allows the history and heritage of the Caribbean to be acknowledged and practiced not only here but around the world as tourists come and go. Tourism’s environmental impact effects the natural and geographical diversity that can only be found in theseRead MoreRelationship Between Religion And Mental Health1081 Words   |  5 Pagespeople to be incarcerated and have reoccurring problems with the law. This plays a part in the development of the local youth because it lies down t o their families The relationship between religion and mental health has been debated for centuries. History shows that religious organizations were often the first to offer compassionate care to the mentally ill; however, for hundreds of years the religious establishment also persecuted the mentally ill. FAITH : The relationship between mental healthRead MoreEssay about Challenges of Caribbean Society in Achieving National Unity886 Words   |  4 Pages Caribbean’s aim is to come together socially, economically, and politically and to try to work as one nation. However, there are many cultural differences between the countries, which constantly impede amalgamation of the Caribbean territories; aspects of culture such as race, religion, language, governmental systems, history, values and morals and so on, are all different in each territory and place a barrier between any integration of the countries. While cultural Read MoreEssay about The Epic Poem Omers by Derek Walcott959 Words   |  4 Pagescharacter both physically as well as psychological. The wound is the gash of history the connects us all. Omeros is a literary piece that continues to draw mass controversy and raises many questions about its legitimacy as an epic poem. One reason for this is because no wants to really admit or discuss what Wolcott’s truly proposing. This is precisely the point John Ramazani makes in his article entitled, â€Å"The Wound of History†. He believes that Walcott did the world great justice in exposing both theRead Moreâ€Å"the History of the Caribbean Is the History of the Exploitation of Labour† - with Reference to Slavery and the Encomienda Labour System†1045 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The history of the Caribbean is the history of the exploitation of labour† - with reference to slavery and the Encomienda labour system† In the above statement â€Å"the history of the Caribbean is the history of the exploitation of labour,† it simply states that the Caribbean’s history is basically the history of its exploitation of labour. The definitions of keywords exploitation and labour must be considered. Exploitation can be defined as the practice of taking selfish or unfair advantage of aRead More A Caribbean Legacy Essay1182 Words   |  5 Pagesrace are indelible aspects of Caribbean history. In order to fathom the current political, social, economic, and cultural climate of the Caribbean one must engage in a critical study and understanding of the impact slavery has had in modern day Caribbean societies. The modes and intricacies of modern day Caribbean societies are intimately related to the plantation systems of the colonial period, which welcomed the arrival of the largest migration in history. Author Michelle Cliff, in her essayRead More The Caribbean Essay1123 Words   |  5 Pagesclustered in the Caribbean Sea are an interesting study in cultural and social identity. Colonized by european powers from the Fifteenth Century, the Caribbean islands have become mixtures of cultures from Europe, Africa, and India, as well as from the original inhabitants of the islands. As a result, describing and defining the Caribbean is a much more difficult task than it appears on the surface. The norms and ideas of identity and history that exist on one island are vastly different than thoseRead More The Social Impact of Slavery on the Caribbean Society Essay1336 Words   |  6 Pagesstandpoint but, from the racial or what Knight calls ‘complextional mutations’ its social impact on society. Let us discuss historian Benitez-Rojo’s approach to the Caribbean, he tends to reject a single cultural definition of the Caribbean, believing that all the islands have a differing cultural structure referring to its original colonizer. However, he subliminally states in his book The Repeating Island that all the islands hold more in common than the plantation system. He says ...the multiplication

Teaching Methods Based On Teaching English Language Learners

Abstract The purpose of this report is to recommend to the Winn Parish School Board the teaching method that would be the most effective for teaching English Language Learners (ELLs). I analyzed two available solutions: the scaffolding teaching method and the differentiated instruction teaching method. I evaluated both teaching methods based on the flexibility in regards to allowing students’ needs to be met, ease of implementation of each teaching strategy into the classroom, and effectiveness of how of each method helps the students learn and complete what is required of them. My research methodology began with researching who English Language Learners are in general and how they have begun to impact American classrooms and teachers. I also conducted general research on the scaffolding and differentiated instruction teaching methods. After conducting my general research, I decided which three criteria I would focus on as I performed more specific research on my topic. I also interviewed Mrs. Jamie McLarty, a veteran Spanish teacher at Calvin High School in Calvin, Louisiana, who has taught English Language Learners for sixteen years. Once I gathered all of my information, I examined and analyzed it so that I could choose the teaching method that would be the most effective for teaching English Language Learners. The scaffolding teaching method gives all of the students one specific goal for the lesson; however, the differentiated instruction method gives severalShow MoreRelatedTeaching And Learning English As A Foreign Language774 Words   |  4 Pages1 UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTIC AND LITERATURE REFLECTION PAPER TESOL-MA Program Course: Advanced Teaching Methodology Name: à ¢n Ä Class: 2016-B Instructor: Æ °Ã† ¡ng, Ph.D. Taking the course of MA on TESOL, whose design is research-oriented, post-graduates are required to accomplish credit subjects including Advanced Teaching Methodology. It is obviously an opportunity for master students not only to review what they haveRead MoreEnglish As A Second Language1620 Words   |  7 Pages1. Introduction Language acquisition is an important process in every person’s life. As the world becomes more interconnected, there is increasing need for humanity to communicate with each other. According to Chang (2011), language is the avenue through which information is shared. The question of â€Å"which language† has baffled the academic community over time and across space. In the final analysis, it appears that the language that most people in the world should speak actually has political connotationsRead MoreCommunicative Approach1566 Words   |  7 PagesBEST APROCHE IN ENGLISH LANGUAJE TEACHING : THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROCHE I. Problems in the present English teaching and causes of these problems II. Introduce the communicative approach 1. The definition of communicative approach 2. Two principles of communicative approach †¢ Create a realistic situation †¢ The class should be students-centered III. Adopt communicative approach to improve students ability to listen and speak, and achieve the goal of English teaching 1. Three stagesRead MoreThe Characteristics Of Efl Learners Essay1139 Words   |  5 PagesREFLECTION PAPER OF ADVANCED TEACHING METHODOLOGYInstructor: Nguyen Thu Huong, PhD.Student’s name: Ä o Thi Hoang Yen Student’s ID: 166014011160 HO CHI MINH CITY, NOVEMBER 9 TH, 2016 During the first six sessions of advanced teaching methodology course, we discussed six main issues namely the characteristics of EFL learners, language teaching approaches, language acquisition and learning, the process of teaching language systems, presenting and Read MoreThe Purpose Of Education1041 Words   |  5 Pagespersonally think teaching English as second/foreign language would serve many purposes for those who wish to learn it, for instance; students are able to pursue their life ambitions, discover different cultures and communicate with others around the world. I want to teach it simply because firstly it is the most widely spoken language in the world and one which Crystal states: ‘that a person is more likely to be in touch with the latest thinking and research in a subject by learning English than by learningRead MoreTeaching English As A Language959 Words   |  4 Pagesreporting the most effective method of teaching English as a languag e, and the two methods that people tend to subscribe to are 1) primarily focus on the technical side of the language or 2) primarily focus on the content. Stephen Krashen believed that â€Å"subconscious acquisition† of a language â€Å"is separate from conscious learning and is superior in the long run,† as H. Douglas Brown paraphrases in Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (289). As one of his hypotheses of language acquisition, he insistedRead MoreEnglish Language Vs. Foreign Countries Essay1186 Words   |  5 Pages[Date] English Language Education in Japanese Schools Introduction Teaching a second language always has its unique challenges, unlike teaching other subjects, in which instruction is in the learners’ first language. English, being an international language is taught across, most, if not all modern day nations. It is not only important for personal communication and professional growth but also for socialization in a world that is increasingly globalized (Fujimoto-Adamson, p. 259). English languageRead MoreReaction Paper to Comprehension-Based Approach in English Language Teaching978 Words   |  4 PagesSubject : Current Trends in Teaching English Instructor: Mrs. Liezl May C. Tortogo Student: Adoracion Aileen Ayn E. Hilado Reaction to Comprehension Based Approach in Teaching Language A. Summary of Comprehension Based Approach The Comprehension Approach refers to several methodologies of language learning that emphasize understanding of language rather than speaking. It is a pedagogical/instructive principle, which can be found in a number of methods and in practical listening comprehension; Read MoreApplication For Teaching And Nutrition Essay851 Words   |  4 Pages I am applying for programmes relating to teaching and nutrition because I see positively my career in the education sector. I would like to become a qualified English language teacher. I believe that I am able to explain not only grammar rules to children and adults but also to communicate with them paying an attention to their individual needs. During my high school years, I supported my school fellows in learning English language. I affords me a great pleasure to educate people. ThroughRead MoreMy Philosophy : My Teaching Philosophy893 Words   |  4 PagesMy Teaching Philosophy Since Koreans started to learn English, thousands of people have struggled to master the language. Parents currently invest a lot of money and their children spend enormous amounts of time studying English as government suggests new language policies. However, proper verification and investigation of those policies have not been done yet and the outlet is really not promising (Suh, 2007). Most Korean students study English for tests. The purpose of English is so focused on

Organizational Behavior Theory Trait Theory - 1373 Words

Organizational Behavior Theory: Trait Theory Michael Sinnett MGT500 – Organizational Behavior Colorado State University – Global Campus Dr. Larry Key September 24, 2017 Organizational Behavior Theory: Trait Theory There are so many aspects that make up human behavior. For example, a person s environment and their genetics are a couple of aspects that make up an individual s behavior. Therefore, it would make sense that when you have a group of individuals together there would be just as many aspects that make up the group’s behavior as well. The study of individual behaviors within a group and how the group interacts with each other is known as organizational behavioral theory (Howard, 2014). There are many theories located†¦show more content†¦These traits separate leaders from others within an organization (Colbert, Judge, Choi and Wang, 2012). Leadership traits were personality traits that early researchers tried define originally (Wynn, 2006). Even more recent, an article came out describing ten traits for innovative leaders which included: excellent strategic vision, strong customer service, creates a climate of trust, and always available to name a few of the traits (Bus iness Mirror, 2014). Researchers are still looking for specific traits identified to be innate to great leaders. History of Trait theory At the turn of the twentieth century, researchers suggested that there were specific personality characteristics associated with individuals that were distinctive to a person that predisposed them to better than others when it came to leadership position within an organization (Wynn, 2006). One of those researchers was Ralph M. Stogdill. Stogdill proposed, like previous researchers in trait theory, that certain personality traits a leader exhibited were observable and could be defined by others (Stogdill, 1969). In 1969, Stogdill conducted research where he would use actors who wouldShow MoreRelatedDefine Leadership And Contrast Leadership And Management1162 Words   |  5 Pagessupervision of subordinates with the goal of meeting external organizational goals. Leadership, on the other hand, derives from internalizing organizational goals, creating them anew, challenging, or changing them. A leader might serve in a supervisory role, but perhaps for different reasons and different m otivations than the manager. Leadership is characterized by the articulation of an organizational vision, introduction of major organizational change, providing inspiration, and dealing with highly stressfulRead MoreLeadership Theories And Concepts Of Leadership1712 Words   |  7 Pagespositively to the delivery of the organizational goals and directives. Subsequently we must first start with analyzing all relative theories and concepts of leadership. Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories concentrated on what qualities distinguished leaders from followers, while other theories examined variables such as skill levels and situational factors. Many different leadership theories have emerged, but most can be classifiedRead MoreBusiness Ethics : Bus 610 Organizational Behavior1113 Words   |  5 PagesEthics Prem Yadav BUS 610 Organizational Behavior Dr. Rollis Erickson June 29, 2015 Introduction Excellence of an organizational leadership determines how well an organization is doing. Effective leadership is influencing the behavior of individuals and groups in positive way to work towards a predefined organizational goal (Baack, 2012). An effective leader creates vision for the organization and effectively communicates with employees to set the organizational direction for growth, alignRead MoreLeadership Theory And Organizational Culture1361 Words   |  6 Pagesrole of leadership has evolved over the years. Early leadership theories focused on the characteristics of the leader and have shifted to focus on the leader’s behavior, skills and style. Emerging leadership theories continued to shift focus to team leadership and subordinate motivation. Organizational culture is exists in all organizations and influences the work environment. Researchers have studied leadership and organizational culture individually; however there have been less focus on gainingRead MoreLe ading Organizational Change : Tragedy Or Transformation1294 Words   |  6 Pages Leading Organizational Change Cornelius Cash Grand Canyon University LDR825-Organizational Change: Tragedy or Transformation August 10, 2016 Leadership Leaders are conceptual thinkers and must think in the abstract. Decisions made by leaders are non-programmed decisions, which have never been made before, regarding the direction in which the leader will take the organization. The leader is hired by the Board of Directors to maximize the wealth of the stockholders whom they representRead MoreLeadership Models1580 Words   |  7 Pages The authors go on to say that although traditional managerial skills are important they are not sufficient to bring about organizational transformation. Transformational change will come by incorporating new strategies about people and the structure of the firm. These strategies may include leadership models or theories. A number of leadership models or theories exist, which address change in the way a firm addresses the management of its employees. The contingency view of leadershipRead MoreLeading Organizational Change : Tragedy Or Transformation1287 Words   |  6 PagesLeading Organizational Change Cornelius Cash Grand Canyon University LDR825-Organizational Change: Tragedy or Transformation August 10, 2016 Leadership Leaders are conceptual thinkers and must think in the abstract. Decisions made by leaders are non-programmed decisions, which have never been made before, in respect to the direction in which the leader intends to take the organization into the future. The leader is hired by the Board of Directors (BOD) to maximize the wealth of the stockholdersRead MoreThe Trait Theory Of Leadership1503 Words   |  7 PagesTrait Theory of Leadership Introduction The topic of leadership is historically one of the most widely researched when it comes to explorations of organizational behavior. The success of any institution or organization is pegged on the quality of its leadership because it is the determining factor on the pattern and speed at which it achieves its growth goals. Leaders are responsible for steering an organization toward its goal by mobilizing resources (both human and material) and maximizing theirRead MoreLeadership : The New Ceo Of A Executive Team1300 Words   |  6 Pageshowever they realize the movement of some operations off shore will reduce costs. Specifically discussed in this paper will be foundational theories of leadership, assessment and adaptation of foundational theories and leadership skills deemed most effective in a changing and competitive health care environment. Foundational Theories of Leadership Foundational theories are the backbone of today’s application of leadership in all aspects of business in a global society. Understanding the characteristicsRead MoreThe Diversity Within The Workplace1324 Words   |  6 Pageswith their area of expertise with set expectations for meeting organizational goals. While the world analyzed this need, several theories became known. These theories include: (1) path-goal; (2) situational leadership; and (3) contingency, all of which jumped into the everyday language to fulfill the need to define specific characteristics of the leaders; at that time. Moreover, these theories leveraged their need to define the behavior of the follower within the organization, the task to be completed

Measuring Socialism in America Free Essays

Which of the two countries is more socialist, Canada or the United States of America? It must first be state that neither Canada nor the USA is considered a socialist state. For the purpose of this project, a socialist state would be one such as Greece was until the early 1990†³s; a country where the state owns all forms of companies and/or businesses and offers practically every type of social service known to modern governments. Since none of the two North American countries that will be featured in this paper can accurately compare to the bove description, the paper will simply attempt to determine which of the two has a higher degree of socialism when matched against each other following a Before going any further, let†s view the conceptual definitions to the key elements of this paper. We will write a custom essay sample on Measuring Socialism in America or any similar topic only for you Order Now Socialism, as referred to throughout the text, can be defined as follows: any of various social or political theories or movements in which the common welfare is to be achieved through the establishment of a socialist economic system. A socialist economic system can be defined as an economic structure in which the community owns the means of production, istribution, and exchange collectively, and the benefits are distributed to all members of that community. In this economic layout the people will run the government in a highly democratic fashion . Having established what socialism is, let†s move on to the research question, or hypothesis. It is assumed that Canada will have a higher lever of socialism than the United States of America based on its higher level of taxation and its apparently more developed social services system. The research question is therefore: is Canada truly more socialist than the United States of America? The variables that will be used to measure socialism are the level of democracy; social services offered; the minimization of social classes; and finally, the collective ownership of factories, corporation, and companies. According to the conceptual definition given earlier, a socialist country must be highly democratic. We must then find data that would help indicate the variable of democracy. What makes a country democratic? The representation and support of diverse political views as well as a high level of public participation in political decisions are two social characteristics that would ndicate a high level of democracy. To measure the representation and support of diverse political views, let†s examine the different popular political parties in both Canada and the United States of America. According to the network CNN , in the latest US federal election which took place in November 2000, three political parties could be said to have garnered enough public support to be considered important. After the tally of 99 percent of precincts, the Democratic Party stood at 49 percent of public support, the Republican Party at 48 percent, and the Green Party accumulated enough votes to have 3 percent of all votes. No other party received a single percent of all votes. There is also a federal election being held in Canada this month, and the nation will vote on November 27th. According to the latest Reuters/Zogby Research Canada poll , the Liberal Party holds the lead with an approximate 42 percent of public support, followed by the Canadian Alliance, which polled 29 percent, the Progressive Conservative Party holds 12 percent support, the Neo-Democratic Party has 7 percent and finally, the Bloc Quebecois holds 8 percent of public support. Canada therefore has five important political parties, all of which hold more public support than the United States† third important party. However, it would be incorrect to assume that Canada is more democratic than the USA by simply counting the number of political parties. Let†s instead look at how many political views are represented in both countries. In the USA, the Democratic Party can be said to be mostly left of the center on the â€Å"left/right† line, the Republicans would be mostly right of the center, and the Green Party would be considered to represent fairly left political views. If we place the political parties in Canada on the same left/right line according to the views they represent, we see that many more views are covered. The Neo-Democratic Party can be labeled as a far-left party, the Liberal Party and the Bloc Quebecois would be considered left-of-the-middle parties, while the Progressive Conservatives are right of the center and the Canadian Alliance (formerly the Reform Party) represents far-right views. It is evident that once the political views of the parties are exposed, Canada seems to have the edge over the USA when it comes to Let†s now take a look at the second variable that will be used to compare the degree of democracy between Canada and the USA: a high level of public participation in political decisions. To measure this variable, we will look at the number of public representatives who are elected by the population. At the municipal level in the USA, according to the City of St-Louis Board of Elections , the population elects a mayor, a comptroller, a President of the Board of Aldermen, the members of the Board of Aldermen (councilors) and school board members. At the state and federal levels, as maintained by the North Carolina Board of Elections , the population of North Carolina elects members of the US House of Representatives (In North Carolina,12 members are elected), associate Justices of the Supreme Court (2), Judges of the Court of Appeals (5), District Attorneys (37), Judges of District Court (87), members of State Senate (50), members of the State House of Representatives (120), Judges of Supreme Court (Non Partisan) (31), local County Commissioners ( 5), a President and Vice-President, a Governor, a Lieutenant Governor, an Attorney General, an Auditor, a Commissioner of Agriculture, a Commissioner of Insurance, Commissioner of Labor, Secretary of State, a Superintendent of Public Instruction, a Treasurer, a Chief Justice of NC Supreme Court and an Associate Justice of NC Supreme Court. In Canada, at the local level elections are similar. According to Elections Canada the public elects a Mayor, Councilors and School Board members, but no comptroller and no President of the Board of Aldermen, such as is the case in the United States. At the Provincial Level, according to the Government of Ontario , the population elects Members of the Provincial Government (Legislative Assembly) (In Ontario, 103 members are elected), and a Premier. Contrary to the USA, the population does not elect the Lieutenant Governor, the Attorney General, the Auditor, nor any secretaries, superintendents, treasurers, ministers, Chief Justices, Judges or District Attorneys; these positions are awarded by the governing Premier and his Cabinet. The same pattern exists at the federal level. In accordance with the Government of Canada , the Canadian population elects a Prime Minister and members of the House of Commons (In Canada, there are 301 members). Again, there is a stark contrast with the American political ! stem, as Canadians do not elect members of the Supreme Court, or even Senators. When we count the number of representatives who are elected by the population, it seems that the American political system is more democratic than the Canadian system, as it is clear that many important positions are chosen by the people in America and by the politicians in Canada. It is important however to note that the men and women who hold the most power of all in both countries, the members of cabinet, are named by the leading politician. In Canada these people must be chosen from the Legislative Assembly at the provincial level, and the House of Commons at the federal, therefore they were elected to represent the population . However, in the US the Governors and President may choose whomever they please as their cabinet , whether they were elected or not. Despite the previous fact, when looking at the democracy variable as a whole it must be acknowledged that the US is at least as democratic as Canada, therefore the first variable must be considered void. Let†s now move on to the second variable, well-established social services system. For a state to be deemed socialist, it must offer numerous social services to its people, free of charge. Lets begin by examining education. The first indicator for education is the amount of years of free education that are offered by the state. Both countries offer free pre-school, elementary and secondary education through the public schooling system. (A totally socialist state would also offer free post-secondary education. ) In Canada, according to Statistics Canada , most provinces offer 14 years of free education, beginning at the age of 4 with pre-kindergarten. The only exception is Ontario, which currently offers an optional 15th year, known as the Ontario Academic Curriculum. OAC is basically a fifth year of high school, designed to prepare students for university, also acting as their first year of university. However, the Government of Ontario has passed a bill to abolish OAC ! by the year 2002. In the USA, according to the National Education Association , all states offer 15 years of public education, beginning a year earlier than in Canada, therefore offering one year of pre-school more than the provinces of their neighboring country does. It can therefore be said that the USA offers more years of free education than Canada does. But how much does the state spend on these years of education? Let†s look at the second indicator for the variable of education: the amount spent-per student per-year on education. In accordance with data from Statistics Canada , the three levels of government combined to spend an approximate 50,407,100 Canadian dollars per student for the school year of 1996-97. In that same year, Statistics Canada states that 5,065,914 students were enrolled in public schools across the country. Therefore, the state spent approximately 9,949 Canadian dollars per student. Based on the US Census Bureau†s data , all three levels of American government combined to spend an approximate 5,882 US dollars per-student for the same school year of 1996-97. In order to compare these numbers realistically, let†s convert the Canadian dollars to US dollars. In 1997, the Canadian doll! ar was worth approximately 0. 68 American dollars, therefore the Canadian government spent an approximate 6,765 American dollars per-student, compared to the US government†s approximate 5,882. The next social service to be examined is income security. It must be noted that the term â€Å"income security† does not mean exactly the same thing in both countries. In Canada, income security stands for social assistance, benefits to the elderly, employment benefits and child benefits. These services are covered by the Canadian and Quebec Pension Plans, Old Age Security, Guaranteed Income Supplement, Spouse†s Allowance, Unemployment Insurance, Children†s Financial Benefits, Social Assistance, and Worker†s Compensation. On the other hand, in the United States the term â€Å"income security† stands for disability insurance, private pensions, federal employees retirement, and disability programs. These services are offered through Food Stamps, Supplemental Security Income, and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, Earned Income Tax Credit and Unemployment Compensation. In 1994-95, according to the Government of Canada†s overview of Income Security , the Canadian governments ! spent a total of 88,900,000,000 dollars on Income Security. When divided by the approximate population at the time, 29,500,000 people, it averages out to 3014 Canadian dollars per citizen. If that number is then multiplied that by . as the Canadian dollar was worth approximately 86 cents American at the time, we get 2050; the average spent per citizen in American dollars. The United States governments spent 257,000,000,000 dollars on Income Security in 1999, according to the Budget of The United States Government for the fiscal year 2001 . When divided by the US population in 1999, which was 272,691,000, according to the US Census Bureau , we get the amount spent per citizen on Income Security: 942 US dollars. It seems as though Canada spends more on Income Security, but it must be taken in account that the US also has what they call Social Security. The latter covers Old-Age benefits, and Survivors, and Disability Insurance. Since these services fall under the Canadian defi! nition of Social Insurance, it would only be fair to measure them under the same variable. According to the US Census Bureau, 383 billion dollars was spent on Social Security in the US in 1999. That comes out to 1405 US dollars per citizen. When added to the previous total (amount spent per US citizen on Income Security) we get a total of 2347 US dollars spent per US citizen, compared to 2050 US dollars spent per citizen in Canada. However, before declaring the United States more socialist when it comes to Income Security, we must consider the fact that the Canadian data dates back to 1994-95, almost five years younger than the American data. It must be assumed that the Canadian Government has increased its spending on Income Security since 1995, as has been the trend with all of the social services for both Canada and the US. However, we must still recognize the fact that the United States governments spend a good deal of money on these types of services and can be said to sp! end more, or perhaps only slightly less than the Canadian governments do. The final social service variable to be inspected is health care. In order to compare the two countries’ health care systems, two indicators will be examined: the number of health services offered for free and the amount spent per citizen on heath care. In the United States, there are two types of heath care services: Medicare and Medicaid. According the US Federal Government , Medicare is offered to most citizens who are 65 years of age or older, people entitled to Social Security disability payments for 2 years or more, and people with end-stage renal disease. Medicaid is offered to certain low-income families to help cover their medical costs . The Medicare recipients will receive durable medical equipment such as oxygen equipment, wheelchairs, arm, leg, back and neck braces, ostomy pouches, surgical dressings, splints and casts, one pair of eyeglasses after surgery, and other medically necessary equipment that a doctor prescribes for use at home. Medicare also helps cove! r the costs for doctor’s services, outpatient hospital care, blood, lab tests and physical and occupational therapy. Medicaid on the other hand covers much more. On the other hand, according to the Health Care Financing Administration, Medicaid recipients receive inpatient and outpatient hospital services, physician services, medical and surgical dental services, nursing facility services for persons aged 21 or older, laboratory and x-ray services, pediatric and family nurse practitioner services, ambulatory services to individuals under the age of 18 and individuals entitled to institutional services, prenatal care and delivery services for pregnant women, as well as some home health and clinical services. In Canada, as stated by the Government of Ontario’s Ministry of Heath , health care covers all services by a physician (except work or school-related physicals), five or ten annual visits to a podiatrist (chiropractors, osthopasths) and Physiotherapists, dental services do! ne in hospital, optometry services every two years for all 20 to 65 year olds and once a year for all under 20 and all over 65 year olds, and importantly, emergency care of injuries that occur outside of the country. If we compare the services offered in both countries, we see that Medicaid is very comparable to the Canadian Health Plan, plus and minus a few services, while Medicare trails both systems, at least as far as services offered are concerned. The second indicator for health care is the amount spent per person on health services. This is an area where the US is expected to perform poorly, as mentioned in the hypothesis, because so few Americans actually receive government-paid health care. In fact, according to the US Census Bureau any form of government-paid health care covers only 24. ercent of the US population. Medicare covers 13. 2 percent of the population, and Medicaid covers 10. 2 percent while the remaining 3. 1 percent are military personnel who receive basic military health benefits. According to the US Census Bureau , the three levels of government in the United States of America spent 40,168,000,000 dollars on 34,900. 000 Americans in 1991, therefore spending 1147 US dollars per recipient. However, when divided by the total America population at the time, which was approximately 258,000,000 people, we see that a mere 156 US dollars was spent per citizen on heath care. Canada on the other hand offers heal! th care to all of its citizens, therefore it is expected that the per-citizen number will be higher. According to Health Canada , in 1994-95, the three levels of Canadian government jointly spent 51,900,000,000 Canadian dollars on health care. When divided by the total population at the time (29,500,000 people), we get 1759 Canadian dollars per person. Hence, after the conversion to US dollars, the amount spent per person on health care in Canada is 1196, almost eight times as much as the US spending. Consequently, it must be alleged that although the US data is four years younger than the Canadian data, Canada still spends much more on health care than the United States does. Canada then comes out on top when we add all of the variables together in an attempt to determine who is of a more socialist nature, as far as social services go. It must nevertheless be admitted that aside from health care spending, the US does not trail Canada by an extreme amount when in comes to soci! al services, and even comes out on top when in the amount of years of free education offered through the public schooling system. Aside from an advanced social services system, a socialist country must also have a low level of diversity when it comes to social classes. In order to reduce the difference between social classes, one must first reduce the variation of income levels. Therefore, the indicator for the variable â€Å"minimization of social classes† will be income inequality. As said by the paper Income inequality in North America: Does the 49th parallel still matter? , â€Å"Canada has not seen the substantial increase in income inequality that has occurred in the United States. The paper states that the US† average income level has been rising rapidly when compared to Canada†s, but that the US†s income inequality has been growing consistently as well. â€Å"In terms of comparative economic well-being, Canadian families in the bottom 25% of the income distribution were better off in absolute terms in 1997 than were their counterparts in the United States. However, in the top one-fifth of the income distribution, American families had disposable incomes more than 20% higher than their Canadian counterparts. In the top one-tenth of the income distribution, disposable incomes among American families were about 25% higher. † (Income inequality in North America: Does the 49th parallel still matter? , The Daily, Statistics Canada) Although it was not possible to view the data that was used by the author to make the above conclusions, the information will be considered credible for this paper, as it was written on the part of Statistics Canada, which is highly reputed to be an accurate source of data. A more precise way of determining Income Distribution would be to actually compare the spread of income in both countries. According to a US Census Bureau chart, in 1998, 3,6 percent of American households were in the lowest quintile of income (lowest level of income), 9 percent were in the second quintile, 15 percent in the third, 23. 2 percent were in the fourth quintile, and finally, 49. 2 percent of households were in the highest quintile of income. In Canada, the same chart can be found in Canadian Fact Book On Poverty, which was posted on the Posted on the Canadian Council on Social Development website (http://www. cfc-efc. ca/docs/00000327. m). According to the data, in 1991, 4. 7 percent of the Canadian households could be found in the bottom quintile, 10. 3 were in the second quintile, 16. 6 were in the middle quintile, 24. 7 were in the fourth quintile and 43. 8 percent were in the top quintile. Although the difference may not be huge, there is no denying the fact that there is a larger gap between the income levels in the US as the above data shows. As mentioned in the paper Income inequality in North America: Does the 49th parallel still matter? he highest quintile plays a major role in the spread of income in the US. Almost half of all households are in the highest fifth, whereas in Canada, seven percent less (43. 8) households are in the highest quintile. What does all this mean? In keeping with the conceptual definition of socialism used for the purpose of this paper, it means that Canada fits the description of socialism better than the United States of America when it comes to income distribution since the gap ! between the rich and the poor is thinner in Canada than it is in the United States. Aside from having a high level of democracy, good social services and a low level of distribution of social classes, a socialist state must also own many, if not all businesses. That brings us to the fourth variable of a socialist state; collective ownership of corporations, companies, and factories. Traditionally, Canada has had many Crown Corporations (Corporations owned by the State), but the recent trend has been to sell these companies to private investors. Nonetheless, the Canadian governments still own many businesses today. Even so, the Federal Government still owns 49 Crown Corporations according to the Treasury Board of Canada . The most commonly known of these corporations would likely be Canada Post, a nation-wide postal service, The Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission, which runs the CBC and SRC radio and television stations, and VIA-Rail. A few of the less known companies are the Canadian Commercial Corporation, International Development ! Research Center, Royal Canadian Mint, the Business Development Bank of Canada, Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation, Export Development Corporation, Farm Credit Corporation, Defense Construction Limited, National Capital Commission, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. Bank of Canada, Marine Atlantis Inc. , and Jacques Cartier and Champlain Bridges Inc. In addition to federally owned Crown Corporations, the provinces also own their own â€Å"public businesses† the government of British Columbia for example runs sixteen Crown Corporations. The most commonly known of these are BC Hydro, BC Rail and BC Ferries. The US Governments also own similar corporation, although they usually tend to be agencies more than companies. A few examples would be the Central Intelligence Agency, and the Consumer Product Safety Commission. There are however some agencies that can compare to the ones owned by the Canadian governments, as illustrated on the White House†s Federal Agencies and Commissions web page ! such as the US Postal Service, AMTrack, the Export-Import Bank of the US, the Inter-American Development Bank, the International Bank for Reconstruction Development, the Legal Services Corporation, the National Park Service, the Neighborhood Reinvestment Corporation, the Overseas Private Investment Corp. , and the Securities Investor Protection Corp. Since the â€Å"corporations† are included with the agencies and commissions all government sites, it is difficult to count a precise number of government divisions that could be considered â€Å"Crown Corporations† in the US. It can however be estimated that at the Federal level, between 10 and 20 of these corporations exist. In addition, the American public also owns a television station independently of all forms of government. The educational station PBS is funded entirely by the people, depending largely on personal pledges for its survival. It must however be concluded that Canada has a great deal of State-owned companies when comp! ared to the US since it is nearly safe to say that there are at least twice as many of these corporations in Canada than there are in the United States. In conclusion, the hypothesis must be accepted, as the research proves that Canada is indeed more socialist that the United States of America. Although America is relatively strong when it comes to education, Canada does indeed spend more social services than the United States of America does. Canada also has more state-owned corporations than does the United States of America. Since the US does not clearly come out ahead of Canada in any of the variables, we cannot claim is as being in the same league as Canada as far as socialism goes. We can however state that the United States offers more years of public education than Canada does, and that it spends approximately the same on income security. In fact, if the United States offered health care to all of its citizens like Canada does, it could be argued that both countries are very similar in terms of socialism, with Canada being the frontrunner. However that is not the case, and what the entire research came down to was t! fact that health care is only offered to 24 percent of all Americans. The US Government actually spends 1147 US dollars per health-care recipient, only 49 US dollars less than Canada spends per recipient. What does this research tell us? It simply reinforces the theory that Canada is more socialist than the United States of America in its ways of governing. Perhaps it has to do with the fact that it is younger than its southern neighbor, that it still follows its European parents, France and England. America has matured more than Canada has, since it has been a free nation for much longer. There is no doubting that the US has developed its own governing system, with its own distribution of services and is striving off of it economically. There is however no less doubting that Canadians are proud of their social services, and education and democratic system. It seems both countries are in a state of comfort. America is generally content with its system and Canada is also generally happy with the way the country is run. It is however always fun to peek on the other side of the fence and see how our neighbor is doing, and how we compare to him/her. How to cite Measuring Socialism in America, Papers