Friedman's statement (published by The New York Times Magazine in Essay

Friedman's announcement (distributed by The New York Times Magazine in 1970) recommends that monetary and social targets are separ - Essay Example CSR has anyway stayed a begging to be proven wrong point, as respects genuine pretended by enterprise inside social orders, as firms have endeavored to limit their CSR jobs or formulated approaches to utilize social obligation as another strategy (a marking device) for expanding their benefits. Milton Friedman has been a significant defender of hostile to CSR development, and has composed articles, which are considered as fundamental bits of neutralize CSR and partnerships that advance CSR. This is clear in his 1970 article, â€Å"The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits,† distributed by The New York Times Magazine in 1970, where he asserted â€Å"businessmen who talk along these lines are accidental manikins of the scholarly powers that have been subverting the premise of a free society these past decades† (Friedman, 1970: 1). He further proposed that social and monetary objectives are particularly various substances for any enterprise and the t wo can't work connected at the hip. In this unique situation, the article will investigate Friedman’s thoughts in the light of various perspectives about the idea of the organization, as talked about by Klonoski’s (1991) in his article, â€Å"Foundational Considerations in the Corporate Social Responsibility Debate.† The researcher’s stand that CSR is a significant piece of present day business technique will be represented with models from insightful articles and genuine examples. Conversation There is a lot of hugeness related with the idea of CSR, as leading business is a procedure chosen by society for assembling and spread of items and administrations. At first, it was felt that any business firm could ful?l its social commitments by just continuing in the serious market and enhancing their pro?ts. The business firms could utilize all social and common assets for making benefits essentially by holding fast to the fundamental legislative principles fo rced for controlling misbehaviors. The current market framework made a structure fundamental for checking and controlling the framework, while pro?ts ensured effectiveness and motivations. Under this framework, personal responsibility and morals (work environment and individual) shaped to be fundamental core values for a corporation’s activities. Along these lines, by producing pro?ts, firms helped in development and advancement of a country’s financial framework that thus made a degree for expanded business and salary age for additional individuals (Beck, 1992). In this way, CSR was constrained to improving the main concern, and it was commonly recognized that a business firm would neglect to get by without making pro?ts; subsequently, the subject of accepting a social job was rarely raised. It was as of late specialists opined that other than having benefit making objectives (or financial goals), partnerships must work towards tending to certain open desires, that is , focus on social government assistance. Attributable to this, the very idea of social duty related with pro?t advancement experienced changes, and social and monetary objectives both got equivalent consideration. Buchholz (1991), while characterizing CSR, recognized ?ve principle components that outline the term. These are: Business firms have commitments that go past assembling items and offering types of assistance at a monetary benefit; These commitments help to determine noteworthy social issues, particularly ones made by the organizations themselves; The effect from the operational

How has the global political economy changed as a result of the global Assignment

How has the worldwide political economy changed because of the worldwide budgetary and financial emergency since 2007 - Assignment Example Today, most financial experts assert that the most noticeably awful is behind us. Anyway the aches of the most recent downturn are as yet being felt. The short term isn't ruddy with development estimates being downsized by most nations. That the removed future would bring back the delights of blast period is the thing that each country is placing its faith on. Alongside this monetary and money related emergency that has seen joblessness numbers take off, banks breakdown, salaries psychologist and request melt away, there has been choppiness on the planet political scene also. On the off chance that the securities exchanges are precarious, so are the administration set ups of numerous countries. Vukovic (2011) keeps up that the purpose behind the emergency lies basically in the political space. He declares that the solid impact of intrigue gatherings, campaigning intensity of monetary partnerships, prompts partiality in macroeconomic approaches and wasteful asset distribution. While t he compelling, esteemed to be reliable United States is confronting an initiative emergency, there is political disturbance in European nations. Walker (2011) recommends that this emergency of administration is winning, alongside United States, in Europe, Japan and Australia. Besides this initiative deficiency stretches out to organizations like the IMF. The BRIC nations (Brazil, Russia, India and China) are likewise confronting political emergency of sorts as this emergency has saved not many. The current paper takes a gander at the political situation in certain select nations of the world to see how the worldwide money related and financial emergency since 2007 has affected the worldwide political scene. US of America Duchin (2009) builds up that the banks' political ties assumed a significant job in Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) support circulation. It was accordingly the political activism and not reasonability that administered government spending when downturn was at i ts pinnacle and the ambushed organizations clamored for money. There has been a political stalemate in the U.S between the Republicans and the democrats as the two gatherings neglected to concur on key issues. To such an extent that the difference between them welcomed the US near the precarious edge of an obligation default and kept the world on tenterhooks dreading another emergency. The most recent plan between the two warring groups will empower the U.S government to get cash till the finish of 2012. The administration, on its part will guarantee a spending cut of nearly $1 trillion spread throughout the following decade. Specialists opine that the trade off recipe might be brief and questions like â€Å"where to cut government spending?† could again erupt the political scene. Moreover, is the political compels that will choose whether Obama can go in for the third round of quantitative facilitating or not. India Today (2011) asserts that Barack Obama, the U.S president, has various issues to stand up to, including the first since forever FICO score minimization of the US, as he goes for re-appointment. The president would trust that his $447 billion employments bill converts into great, unmistakable numbers by at that point. The status of the U.S. dollar as the save money of the world naturally interfaces the cash trade rates with political hints. The development of this money prompts political repercussions in the remainder of the world. Germany Greece has been the most recent recipient of salvage advances conceded after the assent of Euro zone pioneers. Germany’s Chancellor Angela Merkel., has experienced harsh criticism from the Christian Democratic Union for her endeavors to make sure about extra bailout assets for Greece. Assessments of public sentiment in the

The International Economy and International Economics

Universal financial aspects are progressively ending up being a significant circle of research as worldwide markets become exceptionally acclimatized. As issues of actuality, governments, organizations and purchasers have come understand that their presences rely upon what is occurring inside the worldwide market.Advertising We will compose a custom exposition test on The International Economy and International Economics explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More International financial aspects is characterized as a circle of study that investigates the results of loaning, obtaining, speculation and exchange on a universal scale. On the other hand, worldwide exchange takes a gander at how macroeconomic models can be utilized to grasp universal financial matters. A portion of the remarkable highlights of universal exchange incorporate customer conduct, firm conduct, entirely serious monopolistic and oligopolistic advertise structures, and results of market mutilations. The (GDP) is a significant monetary variable that quantifies the financial states of an individual/nation. The gross national item mirrors the yield of financial exercises inside a predefined timeframe. For example, the GDP/capita portrays the monetary state of an individual in a nation. Mention that the GDP per capita varies essentially across nations. Table 1 gives cutting-edge information on GDP and GDP per capita for a chose group of nations. Expansion and joblessness rates are utilized to quantify the financial prosperity of a nation. Expansion is a monetary variable that thinks about shopper value files between two unique periods. For example, a lower swelling rate implies that the economy is progressing nicely and the other way around. The last mentioned (joblessness rate) is utilized to gauge the level of the jobless individuals inside a nation. Table 2 delineates expansion rates and joblessness rates for some chosen nations. It merits referencing that a few information in tabl e 2 are anomalous because of the financial emergency that happened in 2008. A few financial experts utilize an administration spending plan to measure the exhibition of monetary exercises. Expense incomes are ordinarily used to finance open ventures, for example, the development of thruways. By and large, an excess in the administration financial plan happens when the sum spent by the legislature on open undertakings is not exactly the aggregate sum of expense revenue.Advertising Looking for exposition on business financial matters? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conversely, a shortage in the administration financial plan happens when the assessment gathered is insufficient to back open consumption. It merits legitimacy to take note of that a Forex advertise is expected to encourage exchange among various monetary standards in global exchange. Numerous nations face the difficulty of whether to fix the conversion scale of t heir particular monetary standards or permit the rates to vacillate as per the market elements. It is against this background the International Monetary Fund (IMF) was set up to screen and assist nations with tackling their worldwide money predicament. The IMF has made a rundown of money systems in all nations taking an interest in universal exchange. The swapping scale frameworks embraced by certain nations are delineated in table 3. The exchange equalization of a nation is another key global measurements that demonstrate the monetary prosperity of a nation. A nation is esteemed to have an exchange excess if the estimation of complete merchandise sent out outperforms the estimation of the absolute products imported. Then again, a country is viewed as encountering exchange shortfalls if the total amount of products imported outperform the total amount of merchandise traded. This data is basic since it empowers market analysts to portray the universal venture position (IIP) of a nati on. It merits referencing that the IIP is a financial pointer that quantifies the total estimation of remote properties possessed by nearby occupants less the total estimation of household properties claimed by outside people. The world has encountered a few financial emergencies since the only remaining century. The latest one happened in 2008 when world yield declined and joblessness rate expanded. In addition, there was a generous decrease in worldwide exchange as both residential and universal ventures shrank. A monetary downturn normally happens when the genuine GDP of a nation decreases notwithstanding an ascent in the total pace of joblessness over a predefined timeframe. Accordingly, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank were built up so as to check financial emergencies. For example, the principle objective of the World Bank is to offer awards and credits to encourage monetary advancement among poor nations. Then again, the IMF is for the most part entrus ted with checking the universal conversion scale frameworks just as offering transient advances to nations encountering equalization of installments (BOP) problems.Advertising We will compose a custom article test on The International Economy and International Economics explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More National Income and Product Accounts The national salary delineates the total measure of cash created by variables of creation inside a year. A few segments of the national pay incorporate benefits, leases and wages. The national item (national yield) portrays the market estimation of every single last great and administrations produced inside an economy during a given year. Figure 1 portrays the roundabout progression of cash inside an economy. It merits legitimacy to make reference to that the national salary (estimation of complete pay) ought to be proportionate to the national item (estimation of absolute yield). As noted before, the GDP mirrors the yield of financial exercises inside a nation in a particular timeframe. Then again, the gross national item (GNP) quantifies the aggregate sum of merchandise and enterprises created utilizing local elements of creation. The GNP incorporates all creation exercises that happen inside and outside the nation. The national salary characterizes the way where the GDP is processed. The condition beneath shows that the total national output is a total of the utilization (C), speculation (I), government spending (G), and costs on trades (XE) less costs for imported merchandise (ME): GDP = C + I + G + XE âˆ' ME The utilization variable of the condition (C) speaks to household or potentially outside items and administrations acquired by inhabitants. Ventures (I) mean the expenses acquired while undertaking fixed speculations. XE means the aggregate sum of products sent out to different nations. ME means the all out products acquired from another nation. G signifies the aggregate sum spend by the admin istration on open undertakings (for example Development of interstates). Imports are typically deducted from the GDP condition since imported merchandise are a subset of the administration, venture and utilization consumptions. As it were, the total national output level isn't straightforwardly influenced by imports.Advertising Searching for exposition on business financial aspects? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More The equalization of installment (BOP) accounts is a documentation of the money related exchanges between the occupants of one nation with the remainder of the world inside a predefined monetary year. The BOP account is made out of a few littler records. These incorporate current record (CA), stock exchange account, administrations record, merchandise and enterprises account, and money related record. The accompanying condition speaks to the CA balance: CA = XEG,S, IPR, UT-MEG, S, IPR, UT Where G= incorporates imports and fares of products; S= administrations; IPR= salary installments and receipts; and UT= one-sided moves. A nation is esteemed to have an overflow current record if current account0. This implies the estimation of fares outperforms the estimation of imports. On the off chance that the current account0, at that point the nation has a shortfall current record since imports are more prominent than sends out. The exchange balance demonstrates different approaches to record the contrast among imports and fares. The product exchange balance is to some degree contracted in estimating exchange between nations managing exchanged items. At long last, the monetary record balance quantifies the total imports and fares. The universal speculation position (IIP) of a nation can be contrasted with an accounting report since it uncovers the total outside resources possessed by household occupants and the total local resources held by outsiders inside a predefined timeframe. Subsequently, a nation’s net situation regarding worldwide exchange is either excess or deficiency. In the event that the net position is an overflow, at that point it suggests that the total estimation of outside resources claimed by residential occupants outperforms the total estimation of local resources possessed by remote occupants. Insights recommend that the United States is ostensibly the greatest account holder nation on the planet. At the end of the day, the country’s II P is in shortfall and the money related estimation of that deficiency is the greatest on the planet. For instance, in 2008, the measure of cash the US owed the remainder of the world was evaluated at $3.47 trillion. Albeit a few Americans are stressed over the numerical size of the obligation, it merits referencing that this obligation is under 25% of the country’s yearly GDP. Outline of Trade Imbalances Some individuals believe an exchange surplus to be something worth being thankful for and an exchange shortfall an awful one. Nonetheless, an exchange excess/deficiency can be fortunate or unfortunate subject to the predominant monetary conditions. An exchange surplus happens when fares outperform imports while an exchange shortage rises when imports outperform sends out. A few people recommend that exchange shortages normally brings about loss of occupations in the economy. In any case, when all results of exchange lopsided characteristics are thought of, an exchange deficie ncy can just bring about momentary occupation lo

What is IR Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What is IR Theory - Essay Example Worldwide Relation hypothesis raises in a general sense exact issues which must be settled by breaking down the realities. Educator Martin Wight, in the 1960 April issue of global Relations, distributed a paper titled â€Å"Why Is There No International Theory?† The Professor accepts that the sovereign state has, since the Reformation, been the point of convergence of Western political idea and experience (Morgenthau 63). The worldwide hypothesis is consistent with strategic experience, and is expanded when confidence in progress is common. As indicated by this way of thinking, if things stay as they were before, man would get frantic. This hypothesis he alluded to as â€Å"the contention from desperation†. Global relations is broadly includes repeat and reiteration as worldwide reality and universal hypothesis impact. Worldwide hypothesis turns into a kind of theory of history as it includes a definitive encounter of national presence and national termination. For national presence, each individual requires the assurance of the express that speaks to them in the worldwide network (Wight 38). This view believes a sovereign State to be the finish of a political encounter and action. This juristic articulation believes worldwide legislative issues to be a messy expansion of residential governmental issues. It is an efficient and proceeded with level of influence between various players. Worldwide Relations is a transient subject with the cutting edge society being in a condition of change. The past events in a single state relating with different states impacts the future connections that are probably going to happen. In this manner, the speculating of worldwide relations is compared to an arrangement of dynamic suggestions with a prescient capacity. In the perspective on this framework, countries become generalized participators in generalized symmetric or unbalanced relations (Morgenthau 65). The cutting edge society has risen up out of a medieval society and is

Analyzing arguments within a controversy

Week 10 reactions - Essay Example That being stated, inside every auxiliary the organization would be homogeneous, or non-different. Would that at that point be D&I? Since individual communication will be to a great extent between individuals of comparative foundations, and associations between people from various nations will to a great extent be for coordination purposes and by electronic correspondence generally, that could barely be called expanded. In truth, global endeavors will do little assorted variety and consideration whenever saw from the viewpoint of every district. Most likely the genuine decent variety and incorporation impacts will be found in the fundamental central command where all auxiliaries ought to be spoken to, and where the populace is various enough for individuals of various foundations and conditions to meet up and associate on an individual premise. Assorted variety and consideration fundamentally incorporates in any event a demeanor of resilience among various individuals, and, best case scenario acknowledgment of their disparities (Chmiel, 2008). All things considered, this is what is portrayed in every section of the Trailblazers book, the methods and techniques how people functioning intently together could turn into a resource for an association (Anderson and Billings-Harris, 2010). The post is sharp and gives a real to life individual perspective on how the course has tuly insisted one’s convictions and feelings about an exceptionally significant social issue. Frequently referenced was the reaction from schoolmates which gave approval to the individual understudy in this class concerning his/her own perspectives on the various sections and exercises, and the effect of the exercises in detail (i.e., the investigation of Robber’s Cave Experiment and the Chick-Fil-An Appreciation Day occurrence). I concur with Christopher that the particular issues talked about gave a handy point of convergence to the general standards and arrangements appended to D&I, and were powerful in driving home the

Do you live in Zambia Malawi Ghana

Do you live in Zambia Malawi Ghana On the most excellent advice of my blog-readers, I have added D-Lab to my schedule. This involved dropping a few other activities of minor importance (biking for fun, blogging, sleep) but hey, saving the world involves sacrifice, right? Im working on designing something that makes Interlocking Stabilized Soil Bricks. Basically, its a machine that applies some sort of pressure to some mixture of dirt and concrete. It has to be able to make a strong brick using pressure instead of heat. Also, the bricks should have a shape that lets them interlock, so that they dont need mortar to hold together. And of course the machine should be fast and cheap and easy to use and produce strong, perfect bricks. My group is throwing around all sorts of ideas to apply pressure right now; screws, levers, pulleys, impacts, vibration, the soul-crushing weight of all the work at MIT But what we could use are facts. Do you know how Zambian/Malawian/Ghanaian dirt compares to dirt commonly found in, say Massachusetts? Or what sort of building materials are just laying around in these countries? What sort of skills people have? Have you used one of the existing machines, like in the picture? How was it? What sort of buildings do local people usually build (round? square? tall?)? Did you play with mud as a child? Ill take any leads Post Tagged #D-Lab

Problem, Aims And Plan Of Study - Free Essay Example

Introductory orientation Truancy is about learners who have not been attending school regularly as required by the school, parents and even the authorities. Truant behavior is a problem for the individual, the family, the school and society in general. Free and compulsory education is recognized as a basic entitlement under international standards, including the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989) and the European Convention on Human Rights (1950). With the right to free education and the obligation corresponding to this right observed and enforced through a national emphasis on school attendance, The National Statistic Office (Malta) states that in the 2004/2005 scholastic year the figure for school absenteeism accounted for 7.7% of the total number of school days in the reference period or an overall absence rate of 9.2 absent days per pupil that for boys being 10.0 days per pupil and for girls 8.4 days per pupil. As a teacher this makes me fretful about students missing school as this can be associated with subsequent emotional and psychosocial problems in early adulthood and is a predictor of multiple problems (Fogelman Hibbert, 1990). Truancy may have both short and long term effects on society. There is evidence that truancy is linked to delinquent behaviour and juvenile crime (Collins, 1998; Reid, 1999). According to Jones (1996), Absenteeism is a sign of trouble that often leads to lower academic skills and grades, delinquency, and dropouts. Studies have shown that high school dropouts are twice as likely to be unemployed and on welfare, and overall, tend to be facing a more difficult life than their graduating counterparts. Jones (1996; p.128), All members who form part of any educational institution cannot allow these students to give up on themselves. We as a modern, fast developing society, we cannot afford to let them surrender. It is clearly far less expensive to educate them than pay for a lifetime of welfare and all of the deprivations that welfare represents. These are ominous issues, which imply that the number of students who skip school is rising and that school absenteeism is a new generations behaviour that is today a dramatic social phenomenon. This proposal drafts the intent to investigate and explore realities of how truancy manifests with Maltese youth and also explore the psychosocial world of truants in Maltese schools. Problem Analysis The Pre-Scientific Problem awareness As a supply teacher for these past five years, I have witnessed incidences of truancy in the period 2006 to 2009. One of the common truancy reducation measures used was to lock the school gates during lessons and breaks and open them after school hours (my personal exsperience). Despite the limited impact on truancy reducation, the approach of locking gates is still common and evident in some secondary schools. I found locked gates while visiting some of the schools. Gangsters, to control late coming and to stop learners from dodging classes, locked gates to prevent trespassing, sepecially. Exploring the problem Incidence and nature of truancy Malta Since 1946 education has been compulsory for all children between six to fourteen years and extended to the age of 16 by the Education Act (Malta) of 1971. Maltese law imposes a duty on parents to ensure that their children of compulsory school age receive appropriate education, whether through attendance at a state or independent school. If they fail to do so, without any reasonable excuse and if found guilty, they are liable to a fine not exceeding in previous currency one Maltese Lira (equivalent to à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬2.33) for each day during which the offence continues, unless the parent fails to give a good and sufficient explanation within three days from the date he or she receives a notice from the Director of Education (Malta Education Act 1988). From January 2001 up to December 2002 there were 8,903 arraignments before the local tribunals in connection with school absenteeism (Grech, 2002). This figure represents only the number of students who were absent from school without a valid reason on more than three occasions in the time frame of a month. It is a known fact that there are a number of students that systematically plan three days off from school each month, just for the sake that they use their monthly absence allowance and knowing that in this way their parents would not receive a citation. Surveys show that the overall absence rate between 25th September 2000 to 31st March 2001 stood at 10.5 days per pupil (NSO Malta, 2001). This figure reveals an increase of 5.2% over 1999/2000 scholastic year (NSO Malta, 2001). Thus it shows that during this period, 657,604 pupil days were lost to absenteeism and authorised absence due to sickness. Indeed, the Clark Report (2005) shows concern for the increase in unauthorised absenteeism with parental consent, particularly in state secondary schools which cater, in the main, for a student population coming from a working- class background. Family problems, psychological problems, illnesses, school phobia and bullying have, significantly, been indicated by the Clark focus group to be the topmost reasons contributing to school avoidance. Some Overseas Countries Most of the research conducted abroad seems to provide information regarding the nature and extent of truancy in secondary schools. Results of a study conducted at a school in London from 1985 to 1987 revealed that 70% of the sampled pupils admitted truanting during the three-year period (Stoll, 1990:22). In the study that involved nine secondary schools, 66% of the 765 fifth year pupils admitted truanting (ibid). Figures on truancy in 150 English secondary schools revealed that 31% of pupils in years 10 and 11 admitted that they played truant or skipped lessons (OKeefe Stoll, 1995:12). Gray and Jesson (1990:25) report about the major national survey results of truancy in English secondary schools. According to this study, 23% of all fifth year pupils were involved in truant behavior and they were less likely to stay on in full-time education. Furthermore, schools facing serious problems of truancy tend to be in the inner city rather than in other areas (ibid). on the other hand, Collins (1998:26) reports that absentee rates vary between schools in the London Education Authority. Munn and Johnstone (1992:4) found that out of a sample of 50 Scottish secondary schools, 18% of the pupils (11% in June and 7% in November) were classified as truants and were mostly form the senior years. These figures exclude truants within the school day, as 14 schools reported that they did not keep period attendance records (ibid). Truancy has long been a subject for research in various parts of the USA. According to Nelson (1972:98), 64% of the 591 students surveyed identified themselves as class truants. Learners habitually play truant each day in Los Angeles, Pittsburg and Milwaukee (Black, 1996:33). Bos, Ruiters and Visscher (1992:393) found that the average rate of truancy in 36 schools in the four Dutch cities studied was 4.4% and that truancy increased with the level of the class in almost all schools. Some researchers further indicate that truancy does not necessarily mean missing the whole day of school but found that I could be in the form of missing a part of a day or particular lesson (Kilpartick, 1998:31; Reid, 1999:91). In a study conducted by Malan in South Africa (1972:144), 2,738 out of 69,908 pupils were identified by their teachers as truants. Masithela (Masithela, 1992:33) observed that learners tend to miss lessons during the first and second periods, as well as during the last give periods. The tendency of missing certain lessons towards the end of the school day shows that some form of hidden truancy is prevalent and that pupils can be marked present in the register but fail to attend all lessons (ibid:45). On the other hand, they may come late and be marked absent or be somewhere on the school premises not attending certain lessons or periods, but still be marked as being present on the class resisters. Factors associated with truancy Malta Truancy is about learners who have not been attending school regularly as required by the school, parents and even the authorities. Tyerman (1968) defines the term truant as the child who is absent from school purely on his or her own initiative. Gabb (1994) includes in his definition of truant, that a child who is absent with leave given by his or her parents, or who are actually kept at home by the parents. Hersov (cited in Gabb, 1994) goes still further, dividing from truants, school phobics and school refusers. King (2001) furthermore defines school refusal/school phobics as a difficulty to attend school due to emotional distress, especially anxiety and depression. Fenech (1991) (in an unpublished research) defines absenteeism as being away from lessons for any period of time and for reasons not considered as legitimate, with or without the parents knowledge (p.3). She goes on to include physical presence without any attention being given to a lesson in progress [as well as] masked or selective truancy (ibid., p.3). Fenech (ad. lib.) refers to the latter as skiving off specific lessons or disappearance after registration (p.3) remarking that a number of sources consider absenteeism and truancy synonymous. Sultana (1997), like Fenech (1991), defines absenteeism as staying away from school for reasons not justified by the law (p. 355). However, she goes on to include other less overt ways (ibid., p 355) such as what Willis (1977) calls participating in informal mobility (ibid., p. 355). This includes not entering the class for lesson, intentionally staying in another class, leaving the class without permission, or staying in class without bothering to follow the lesson. Studies conducted abroad When seen from a psychological viewpoint, truancy may be symptomatic of learns who are insecure and have low academic achievement levels and low self-esteem. Lewis (1995:37) states that attendance difficulties my broadly result from a combination of pull and push factors. Pull factors are personal and social aspects that pull a learner out of school. The pull factors may be related to the psychological indices mentioned by Reid (2002:11), such as maladjustment, a lower general level of self-esteem and academic self concept, anxiety and lower career aspirations. Factors that push learners away from school include academic and classroom aspects such as inapproachability of the teaching staff, incomprehensible teaching style and inappropriate classroom management. Other factors relating to the school and the classroom include bullying, the curriculum, boring lessons (Reid, 1999:91), teachers humiliating remarks (Porteus, Clacherty, Mdiya, Pelo, Matsai, Qwabe and Donald 2000:11), poor record-keeping and school organization (Bimler Kirkland, 2001:90; Coldman, 1995:29). According to Pappas (1996:1), truancy is often symptomatic of family dysfunction, since the parents of truants tend to be permissive, undisciplined and unavailable. Some authors believe that truancy is associated with a poor socio-economic background, including poverty, poor housing and unemployment (Bell, Rosen and Dynlacht, 1994:204; Tyerman, 1958:222). Some researchers state that there is a link between truancy and delinquent behavior (Collins, 1998:38; Brown, 1998:298-299; Reid, 1999:25). Truancy differentiated from school phobia There is a need to distinguish between truancy and school phobia. The concept school phobia describes a learner who is unwilling to attend school and stays at home with the knowledge of parents (Wicks and Nelson, 2000:123). A learners problem often stats with a vague complaint or reluctance to attend school and progresses to total refusal to go to school. Blagg (1992:121) asserts that school phobia may be induced by fear-arousing aspects of school, such as fear of failure caused by anxiety about meeting the standards. Fear may also be related to worries about the health and welfare of parents (Blagg, 1992:123). In the other hand, a learner who plays truant misses the whole school day or lessons without the knowledge of parents or caregivers. Furthermore, a truant tends to be involved in various forms of anti social behavior (Blagg, 1992:121). Milner and Blyth (1999:18) acknowledge the difficulties involved in studying the prevalence and pattern of truancy and in comparing current and past school attendance or absence. The difficulties are partly compounded by the variations in the definition of truancy itself (Boyd, 1999:22; Gabb, 1997:2) and the multifaceted nature of truancy (Edward and Malcolm, 2001:1; Reid, 1999:17). The problems associated with studies on truancy should, however, not prevent further research from being conducted. Solutions should be found, or the cause at least eliminated, because truancy is regarded as a serious problem with socio-economic implications. A preliminary review of the literature reveals that truancy is a major problem form schools and society and a most powerful predictor of juvenile delinquent behavior (Van Petegem, 1994:272; Wiehe, 2000). Reid (2002:2) maintains that the amount of money spent on truancy reduction initiatives proves the extent of truancy. Statement of the problem Data on the extent and nature of truancy in schools are often based on information obtained from class registers. This information may be inadequate or almost incomplete and limits the understanding of the phenomenon, thus making it difficult to develop appropriate intervention strategies. More insight on how truancy manifests is needed to provide a base on which to suggest, plan and develop effective intervention strategies. Therefore, further research is needed to enable education officials, schools, parents and other professionals to manage learners with attendance difficulties more efficiently. This study serves to bridge the information gap regarding the nature of truancy and to provide a picture of the life world of truants in Secondary Schools. Aims of the Research The General Aim The aim would be to describe truancy in general as stated in the literature and to conduct an empirical study in order to determine how truancy behaviour manifests in secondary schools and what the life world of truants looks likes. The findings can then be used to inform and guide future practice. The Specific aim The aim of the study would be to gather information that will be used to guide the school (college) community namely the SMT, form teachers, subject teachers, guidance teachers and school councillors, youth workers in school and other stakeholders to help in the interventional approaches and procedures that can be used for reducing truancy. In order to realise the above aims, the following questions are set to direct the research: What is the extent and degree of truancy in terms of the frequency and number of learns involved? What are the patterns, type or nature of truancy? Where do truants go when not at school or in class? What measures are used to monitor and manage truancy? Research Method The study will comprise two methods, namely, a literature study and an empirical investigation. A study of the literature will derive information on studies about poor school attendance and procedures employed to mange or reduce truancy from books, research articles, journals and other resources. A quantitative research design will be used in the empirical investigation. This investigation aims to gather data by means of a questionnaire that will be given to learns in Form 1 and Form 2 in eight randomly selected schools, , incorporating two Junior Lyceums, two Area Secondary and two Church schools. A qualitative research design will be used with guidance teachers, counselors, youth workers, form teachers, Assistant Head of Schools and Heads of School currently working in schools. A focus group and interviews with Heads will help me to investigate what the School community is doing to combat truancy. Such data will be advantageous in that they are the most adequate [tool] to capture how a person thinks of a particular domain (Goldsmiths Collage, n.d.). More over since a face to face rapport with the interviewee, it is induced to continue questioning the subject in order to confirm the hypothesis about his or her beliefs, seeking appraise any underlying meaning in the process. Demarcation of research Due to time constraints, the preset research is confined to then 8 randomly selected secondary schools in Malta. A list of all secondary schools was compiled to allow for the random selection of 8 schools, which will form part of this study. This sample was mainl cohosen on the basis of cost implicaitons and accessibility. Explanation of concepts In this section a number of concepts that are relevant to this research are defined. Truancy Reids (1999:1) asserts that the term truancy is often misused and can be applied both generically and with a local meaning. In the different parts of Great Britain, truancy is known as dodging, skipping off, mitching, skiving, bunking off and going missing, respectively. Whitney (1994:49) defines truancy as absence that has not been authorized by the school and where leave has not been given or approved. Another definition provided by Collins (1998:2), who states that truancy is about pupils who have been registed with a school but identified as not attending school when the law says they should. This definition includes absences from a particular lesson or lessons, known as post-registation truancy (Gabbs, 1994:5; Stoll, 1990:23). Clark Report (2005) identify as truancy when a student is voluntarily absent or not attending school without their parents permission and often, awareness (Anglicare, Werribee Family Services 2000). Truancy is defined as unjustifiable or unexplained absence from school with attempts by the student to conceal the absenteeism. Usually the child avoids home when not at school and the parents are often unaware of the childs absence (Rollings, King, Tonge, Luk, Heyne, Ramsdell, Burdett Martin, 1999). The concept blanket truancy refers to absence from the whole school day, which is usually reflected on the class register, while post-registration truancy occurs when the learner is marked present but fails to turn up at a lesson or lessons (Stoll, 1990:23). In this research, the term truancy is broadly defined as unauthorized absence from school. The definition is adopted with the assumption that absence with the knowledge and permission of the school and parents or guardians does not constitute truancy. Since the study seeks to explore the type of truancy as manifested at secondary schools, both concepts of truancy (blanket and post-registration) are relevant and will be investigated. A Truant A truant is a child aged 6 17 years old who absents himself or herself form school without a legitimate reason and without permission of his or her parents or the school official (Schaefer and Millman, 1981: 335). For the purpose of this research, a truant refers to a learner who, after being registered at a school, absents himself or herself from school or lessons without a legitimate reson or permission from parents or the school official. The traditional or typical truant: Traditional truants tend to be isolated that come from an unsupportive home background, possibly with a tendency to be shy. It is likely that they will have a low self-concept, be introverted and be the citim of their social circumstances. The psychological truant: could be the school phobic (school refusal) case but more othen than this psychological truant miss school for psychological related factors such as illness, opsychomatric complaints, laziness, a fear of attending scholl for any reason (such as dislike of a teacher, a lesson, an impending confrontation or fear of bullying.) The Institutional truant: Institutional truants are more likely to indulge in on the spur of the moment absences from lessons and to be selective about days or lessons to miss. Secondary School A school that admits or registers and educates learners in Form 1 Form 5 is known as a secondary school. Life World In this research, the term life world refers to the psychological context this is made up of elements such as interpersonal aspects, the family, school and the broader community. According to this definition, the life world involves the personal and external world of the learner. The personal word refers to intrinsic factors. The external word is made up of the broader educational systems, the home environment and the community where the child spends his time when not at school. Relevant intervention strategies would be easier to suggest if the contextual issues related to the phenomenon under investigations are understood. Research Program The research comprises give chapters, as follows: CHAPTER 1 In this chapter, the background information in the seriousness and implication of truancy are discussed. The chapter also includes an analysis of the problem, the problem statement, aims of the study, description of the research method and definition of the concepts. CHAPTER 2 Chapter 2 entails a review of the literature on types of truancy and the causes of truancy or contributing factors in different countries, including in Malta. Different approaches that the various countries and schools use to manage truancy will also be discussed. CHAPTER 3 This chapter deals with research designs and methods. A discussion of the research problem, the aim of the empirical investigation, the research tool used in the study and the selection of the sample will be included. Details of the compilation and administration of questionnaires as well as an analysis of data will be presented. CHAPTER 4 In this chapter, the results of questionnaires will be presented. The results will be analyzed to find answers to the research questions. CHAPTER 5 The chapter entails a summary of the research finding, conclusions and recommendations. A summary of the results from the literature study and the limitation of the study will be included. Conclusion This chapter focuses on the background and analysis of the problem, as well as the aims of the study. An attempt will be made to explain the research method used, relevant concepts and planned programmes of the research. The next chapter will contain the review of the literature on the types of truancy, factors contributing to truancy behavior, the rate and extent of truancy and the strategies used to manage truancy. CHAPTER 2 TYPES OF TRUANCY, CAUSAL FACTORS AND APPROACHES USED IN THE MANAGEMENT AND REDUCTION OF TRUANCY Introduction According to Tyerman (1958:217), truancy has been a problem to all concerned with education since 1870s. Approximately 750 children were charged for truancy in England and Wales in 1954 (ibid: 220). This figure could have been an underestimation as it was based on learners who were referred to courts, and therefore represented mainly incorrigible truants (ibid). Furthermore, the figure gives a general picture of truanting children in one country only and without an indication whether it was absence from certain lessons or whole school day absence. Truancy is currently a problem in communities. In Clarks report concern was expressed about truancy among school children. Data presented in this report indicates that non-attendance exists, and has become an issue of increasing concern for schools, educational and student welfare organizations. Non-attendances viewed as being among one of the key problems facing some schools. There is increasing concern for the seemingly large number of ch ildren and young people, who are, for a range of reasons, missing out on the benefits of education and possibly on a better future (Dr. L. Galea, The Times 9th February, 2005). Non-attendance can be the beginning of countless problems for students who regularly miss out on school (Heyne, King, Tonge, Rollings, Pritchard Young,1999). The extent and nature of truancy are best understood in terms of whether it implies absence for the whole day or during a particular lesson. This chapter deals with how blanket and post-registration truancy manifest, the causal factors and various measures of reducing truancy in secondary schools. Blanket Truancy Perspectives in various countries England and Wales Normab (2001:49) states that 50,000 children play truant on a normal school day in England. The number of truants increases steadily with age and most truants are found at secondary school (ibid). This confirms past research findings about the existence of truancy in secondary school in some parts of England. Gray and Jesson (1990:25) gathered information on the incidence of truancy from the youth cohort survey of England and Wales. The result of their survey shows that 6% of final-year secondary school learners reported to have played truant for several days or weeks at a time. Malcolm, Wilson, Davidson and Kirk (2003:50) state as follows: In 1999, the Audit Commission noted that at least 40,000 of the 400,000 learners absent from school are truanting. Scotland In a study done at 50 Scottish secondary schools, it was found that 30% to 33% of learners had been playing truant at least once in the survey week (Munn and Johnston, 1992:38). These schools were requested to provide both the overall attendance rate and the numbers of learners (ibid). Australia Haddon (1996:110), citing a comprehensive study conducted in Victorian secondary schools in Australia, states that 40% to 60% of learners of compulsory school age reported that they engaged in truancy. Cohen and Ryan (1998:12) state that about 10,000 learners in Tasmania play truant at least one day a week. The Netherlands The research done at 36 schools in four Dutch cities indicates that the average level of truancy at all schools was 4.4% (Bos, Ruiters and Visscher, 1992:393). The average percentage of allowed absence was 4.7%, therefore suggesting that learners in most schools are just as often absent with a valid reason as without one. United States of America It appears that truancy is a problem in American schools, although at varying levels. According to Black (1996:33), approximately 2,500 and 4,000 learners play truant on a daily basis in Pittsburg and Mulwaukee, repectively, while 300,000 of the 1.6 million students in Los Angeles are habitual truants. This shows that some learners stay absent without permission every day and that a day never goes by with a recording of 100% attendance. Truancy is so much of a concern that the Department of Education has prepared a manual that gives schools some guidelines on how to reduce it (United States Department of Education, 1996). Malta From January 2001 up to December 2002 there were 8,903 arraignments before local tribunals in connection with school absenteeism (Grech, 2002). This figure represents only the number of students who were absent from school without a valid reason on more than three occasions in the space of a month. It is a known fact that there are a number of pupils that systematically take three days off from school each month just for the sake that they use up their monthly absence allowance and knowing that in this way their parents would not receive a citation. Survey results issued by the National Statistics Office Malta on December 16, 2002 showed that overall absence rate from schools between September 25, 2000 and March 31, 20001, stood at 10.5 days per pupil. That included both absenteeism and authorized absence (such as those due to sickness). During this period, 657,604 pupil days were list to absenteeism, accounting for 8.9 per cent of the total pupil days. This reveals an increase of 5. 2 per cent over the 1999/2000 scholastic year. Absences in government schools stood at 19.12 days per pupil whereas that of government dependent (church schools) and independent private schools was 5.76 days per pupil. The rate of truancy in terms of gender Some of the overseas researchers state that there is no difference in the levels of truancy reported for males and females (Gray and Jesson, 1990:26; Haddon, 1996: 110; Smith, M., 1996:226; Stoll, 1994:36; Whitney, 1994: 59). Recent research on truancy in the seven local education authorities reports that the numbers of learners in secondary school admitting truancy was almost equal for boys and girls (Malcolm et al., 2003:31). Coldman (1995:68) also states that the variation that exists in truancy levels of males and females is slight. It is, therefore, apparent that some research are in agreement with regard to the truancy levels of male and females learners. Earlier research that was conducted in South Africa suggests that more males than females tend to play truant Coldman (1995:68) warns against making assumptions and generalisations about the existence of gender differnce in truancy levels. He argues that observed findings might result from the fact that some schools have more males than females, particularly when one is dealing with a large sample. What the above studies suggest about truancy levels of males and females is that the difference might be slight, if it does exist. Furthermore, observed diffrenences may be incfluenced by other variables, such as the enrolled number of male and female learners in a sample. Truancy rate according to the geographical location of the school Serious truancy is said to be more prevalent in inner-city secondary schools in England (Gray and Jesson, 1990:36; Stoll, 1990:23). Munn and Johnstone (1992:4) also found that the Scottish school with the highest percentage of unauthorized absence was all in the inner city. Coldman (1995:69) asserts that claims that truancy is a problem mainly experienced in inner city schools are disputable, since another survey showed that the truancy level is high even in the suburban, rural and industrial areas of England. It may therefore be purely speculation, without much supporting evidence, to suggest that inner-city school experience higher levels of truancy. Hard evidence needs to be gathered, where possible, in order to verify the claim that inner-city experience higher rates of truancy. According to some researchers, truancy levels also appear to differ from school to school, since they may be more prevalent in schools than in others (Blackm 1996:33; Bos et al., 1992:385; Gray and Jesson, 1990:26; OKeefe and Stoll, 1995:12). It is therefore apparent that the levels of truancy seem to vary from country to country, and in some cases, also in terms of geographical locations within a city or town. The literature indicates that blanket truancy is common in many secondary school and that, in some cases, learners play truant on a daily basis. The levels of blanket truancy can also vary according to regional locations within the same country. In the next section, the evidence regarding the level of post-registration truancy drawn from the literature will be discussed. Post-registration Truancy Very little information is given in the literature about national trends of post-registration truancy in countries where research on truancy was conducted. Most of the studies conducted in the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States and some parts of Europe mainly appear to be either school-based or done on a small scale. The Extent of post registration truancy Gary and Jesson (1990:26) report that about 10% of the final-year secondary school learners in England admitted that they played truant during particular lessons. On the other hand, 6% of the learners were involved in blanket truancy, meaning that the rate of post-registration truancy was higher. Stoll (1990:23) conducted research at nine secondary schools and found that the rate of post-resgistration truancy was high at one the schools. Smith, M. (1996:228) also found that the post-registration truancy figure was high in the 12 Hertfordshire school that took part in the research, even though attendance levels appeared to be good. According to Stokes and Walton (1999:88), 20% of the 1,379 learners in Grade 9 to 11 at five schools in Leeds admitted that they engaged in poast registration truancy. When are learners likely to stay away from lessons? According to Coldman (1995:31), about 15% of all truants go absent after registration and thoses learners do not all miss the same lessons. Kilpatrick (1998:31) found that the absence rate increased rapidly during the day and was highest during the afternoon. It is therefore apparent that learners are more likely to leave after being marked present in the register, and to skip some of the afternoon lessons. This research shows that learners may attend all morning lessons but decide not to return to class after recess. How often do learners engage in post registration truancy? Coldman (1995:31) asserts that truants miss lessons several times per week. Most learners commonly use the term bunk when they refer to playying truant. At times, the word skipping is used instead when learners are absent from school or lessons without permission. Learners can therfore bunk certain lessons more than once per week. Some learners can be classified as occasiohal truants in the sense that they bunk class aout ibce every two weeks or choose a different class each time Kilpatrick (1998:31). There is also an opinion that truancy could start with a small number of missed lessons and escalte rapidly (Pasternicki, 1993:33). Research done at one secondary school in Austrialia shows that an improvement in attendance as shown in classs registers may be a change to post-registration truancy (Kilpatrick, 1998:33). This means that, if the registers does not indicate records of attendance during lessons, learners who engage in post registration truancy will be marked present as if they were in class for the whole school day. Learners may then come to school on a regular basis, but miss some lessons without being marked absent. One would then look at the register and think that attendance has improved when it has, in fact, changed to post registration truancy. What is evident thus far is that post registration truancy can easily develop into blanket truancy if it is not easily identified and appropriately managed and that when a register shows marked improvedment in attendance it m ay in fact be indicative of hidden truancy. Which lessons are most learners likely to skip? There are various ways of determining the lessons most learners are likely to skip. Some knowledge of the extent of truancy per subject is derived from research questions which asked learners to state their most favorite and least favorite school subject (Smith, M, 1996:231). Sometimes educators returns on discrepancies between the daily attendance sheet and actual in-class attendance are used (Kilpartrick, 1998:29). On the other hand, Bos et al. (1992:383) asked educators to complete a standard form to record the actual as well as the expected number of learners present per subject during lessons and used these data to calculate truancy percentages. Survey results collected from eight schools in London, Liverpool and Manchester between 1985 and 1994 reveal that Mathematics and Science are lessons that are most frequently missed by both male and female learners (Le Riche, 1995:19). In a study conducted by Smith, M. (1996:231), Mathematics was considered the least popular subject and, in fact, ranked first among the most unpopular subjects. Mathematics and English were least favoured by learners in some schools in Leeds (Stoke Walton 1999:90). Recent research conducted in some secondary schools within the London Education Authority (LEA) indicated that learners play truant during certain lessons. However, the sampled subjects often make no mention of the particular school subject or lessons missed. For instance, Malcolm et al. (2003:33) state that learners skip lessons, but only gave the following answer by a learner: Sometime when Im at school I go to the first lesson but dont go the second and third, if its boring and friends are leading me on at the time. What the above quote suggests is that it may be difficult to determine particular subjects that learners are most likely to skip because learners also succumb to the influence of friends and boredom and may not always skip the same lesson. Research shows that secondary-school learns in South Africa do engage in truant behaviour occasionally, and sometimes on a regular basis (Brown, 1998:298), although no figures appear to be reported about the real extent of post-registration truancy. The information cited in this section of the literature review indicates that some secondary-school learners engage in post-registration truancy. It has also been found that post-registration truancy may go undetected or unrecognized, since truants do not all miss the same lessons (Coldman, 1995:31; Stokes Walton, 1999:90). Post-registration truancy might even be higher than it is assumed to be. The data further show that learners are selective in the sense that they choose to skip some lessons for various reasons, which will be elaborated upon later in the next section. Given the complexity of the way in which truant behaviour can manifest, it may be reasonable to suggest that attendance rates indicated in a class register should be viewed with caution, particularly when it comes to post-registration absence. Do learners engage in both types of truancy? Some researchers stat that post-registration truancy is more common (Coldman, 1995:30; OKeefe and Stoll, 1995:11; Stokes and Walton 1999:90; Whitney, 1994:59), although many truants engage in both types (Milner and Blyth, 1999:18). According to an earlier study of English secondary schools, 26% of the students admitted to their engagement in post-registration truancy, while 14% said they engaged in both types of truancy (Stoll, 1995:36). There is therefore an indication that a certain number of learners engage in both types of truancy in some schools. Where do learners go when not at school or attending lessons? In order to understand and manage the phenomenon of truancy better, the authorities need to know where truants spend their time when not attending school or lessons. Learners appear to engage in various activities while truanting. It was found that some watch television at home while not at school (Le Riche, 1995:25), and either remain in the school building or leave the school premises altogether when not attending lessons. According to Stokes and Walton (1999:89), 25% of the learners report that they went to their own homes or friends homes, while 45% kept their destinations secret by choosing the other category. Given the figures mentioned above, it is possible that more learners spend time in homes watching television than assumed; some go to local shops or town while others engage in activities they will not easily disclose. Research information collected from a group of schools indicates that existence of various types of truancy. Perhaps it would be possible to get some objective information about the destinations of truants from other classmates of friends instead of posing direct questions to those who admit to have played truant. It is evident that explaining the nature of truant behaviour is complex exercise particularly when it comes to post-registration absence. What can be said about the phenomenon of truancy with reference to the literature is that learners can miss the whole school day or certain lessons and classes, or both. Further, skipping the whole school day or class could be occasional, thus concealing the extent of the problem. The extent of both blanket and post-registration truancy is further hidden when class registration is inappropriately done when period or lesson attendance records are not kept. Perspectives on factors that contribute to truancy Many perspectives on factors that make learners play truant are based on images and certain assumptions researchers have about the learner. Carlen, Gleeson and Wardhaugh (1992:85) identified four of those perspectives. Each of them focuses on some researches theories about the main cause of truancy, as discussed in the section below. Personality aspects According to this perspective, truancy relates to variously identified personality aspects of the learner (Carlen et al., 1992:85). Personality is defined as the individuals psychological, physical and spiritual characteristics that determine his behaviour in contexts in which he finds himself (Meyer and Viljoen, 2003:11). Therefore, the contributing causes of truancy are intrinsic and located with the learner. Some of the personal attributes if truanting learners that have identified in the literature are the following: Anxiety and fear In a South African study aimed at predicting truancy, Nel (1975: 125) found that truants tend to be more anxious and experience more stress related to frustration than non truants. It appears that this study is consistent with research finding where High School Personality Questions (HSPQ) test results revealed that truants are more sensitive and emotionally less stable than non truants (Malan, 1972: 147). This further confirms earlier research conducted among truants in England, which shooed that truants tend to be insecure and anxious (Tyerman, 1958:223). The concept of anxiety is often associated with psychoanalytical theory. According to the psychoanalytical theory of Freud, reality anxiety is fear about the actual dangers in the environment (Meyer and Viljoen, 2003:61). In terms of this theory, truancy can be regarded as a response that a learner adopts in an effort to avoid a potentially anxiety provoking situation or event. A learners fear of a threatening situation at school makes him play truant. Truancy is therefore a flight response or defense mechanism. According to Gillis (1992:13), young people tend to use defense mechanisms when dealing with awkward situations, some of which are discussed in the next sections. Poor social skills Poor social skills and a lack of confidence are also factors that contribute to truancy (Edward and Malcolm 2001:2). Lewis (1995:37) asserts that boredom, isolation and lack of friends may be pull factors that pull a learner off school. As stated in the previous chapter, pull factors are personal aspects within the learners, which may include shyness, a tendency to become easily distracted or bored, and perhaps an inability to make friends. It appears that an inability to cope with the demands of making friends triggers a strong impulse to escape from the anxiety provoking situation, thus leading to truancy. This means that some learners respond to a socially challenging or emotionally threatening situation at school by playing truant. Another school-based factor concerns bullying. Child psychologist, Lisa Padovani (2005) graphically sums up bullying as follows: Bullying is the willful, conscious desire to hurt, threaten or frighten someone. It can be a single attack on a person by an individual or a group or may be a longstanding campaign. Verbal abuse, taunting, threatening looks, emotional badgering, physical attack and sexual harassment are all forms of direct bully. Bullying may also be indirect; for instance being ignored socially or the spreading of malicious gossip. Bullying therefore is not simply a conflict between children but a case of an imbalance of power. It is an unfair match between bullies who are physically, verbally or socially stronger than victims who are generally unable to defend themselves in the actual situation (p. 26). The Clark Report (2005) reveals that this phenomenon happened when teachers were not around to observe (p. 29), and the reporting such incidents entailed further retaliation by the aggressor. Fenech ties the issue to alternative cultures which clash with the mainstream culture of the school (Bezzina, Camilleri Grima, Purchase and Sultant, 2002, p. 25), consequently constantly landing bullies in trouble with teachers and administration. Finding of Azzopardi and Bondin (1991) and Cassar (1997) reveal that students did not mince their words in admitting that they attended school merely to meet friends and have fun. They rebelled against stringent school rules, and consequently engaged in deviant acts like playing truant, drinking alcohol and smoking on the school premises, as well as bullying (Fenech, 1992). Low Self-esteem Research indicates that certain personality traits, including lower levels of self-esteem, make some learners more prone to absenteeism than their peers Reids (2002:11). However, research conducted by Sommer and Nigel (1991:389) failed to show a link between truancy and low self esteem and to some extent confirmed results obtained earlier in South Africa, where truants studied by Malan (1972:147) tended to be more assertive and dominant than the population. Cicourel and Kituse (cited in Gabb, 1994) look to the structure of relationship within school between teachers and pupils, how these progressively erode the self esteem of working class pupils and produce feelings of inferiority that, again, lead to delinquent behaviour. Ramsay (1983) claims that knowledge is being used as a form of social control. Behind the faÃÆ' §ade of mathematics and English, he argues there is said to be a hidden curriculum to keep working class children in their places. Anti-social behaviour Truancy is mentioned as one of the behaviours that are associated with conduct disorder (Sue, Sue and Sue, 1997:482). Conduct disorder is a diagnostic label used to describe children and adolescents who display a persistent and repetitive pattern of antisocial behaviours that violate the rights of others (ibid). Antisocial behaviours that an individual with conduct disorder displays include defying authorities, lying, fighting, cruelty to animals and people, as well as truant behaviour. Reid (1999:77) asserts that research shows that feelings of alienation from school and higher levels of anti-social behaviour are some of the characteristics displayed by many truants. This suggests that anti social behaviours make some learners more vulnerable to social alienation, in that an individual is likely to be rejected if his behaviour is socially inappropriate, and if he is disruptive. Therefore, a well behaved learner can easily make friends and suffer little isolation, and is more likely to cope with the stresses of schooling. The inability to cope with stresses of schooling, personality problems and social isolation are some of the factors that are identified as driving learners to play truant (Bimler and Kirkland, 2001:91). Scholastic failure Truants tend to perform poorly in examinations. Gray and Jesson (1990:26) state that, in England, secondary-school learners who admitted that they have once engaged in serious levels of truancy were likely to report low levels of exam performance. Learning problems Reid (2002:12) reports that regualr non-attendees are found among learners whose numerancy and literacy scores are two or more years behind their peers in primary school. According to Le Ritchie (1988:78), a lack of academic success creates a sense of frustration and a constant fear of failure. It appears that learners who experinece difficulty with schoolwork often play truant in an attempt to evade frustration. In some cases, learners may have begun to experience difficulty with schoolwork while still at primary school. An inability to cope with academic expectations and demands can contribute to truancy in secondary schools. Truancy appears to be a response to frustration and anxiety associated with difficult lessons. In many instances, lesson difficulty contributes more to post-registration truancy than blanket truancy (Hallam and Roaf, 1995:18; Kilpatrick, 1998:30). According to Smith, M. (1996:229), 80% of learners in a study conducted at twelve secondary schools Cognitive style It is not enough to assume that learners have difficulty with schoolwork and play truant as a result, without investigating how investigating how they learn and process infrormation. Research information on cognitive style provides us with insight into how some truants learn. Cognitive style is defined as a consistent and typical manner in which an individual organises and processes information (Riding and Read, 1996:81). There are two basic dimensions of cignitive style, namely the Wholistic-Analytical style, which indicates an individuals preference for processing information either as a whole or in parts, and the Verbal Imagery style, which shows a tendency to repesent information during thinking either verbally or in mental images (Rayner and Riding, 1996 :447). Rayner and Riding (1996 :447) conducted research on learners who have a condition that is known as school refusal. Learners who have such a condition refuse to attend school but stay at home when not in school, complain about headaches, stomach pains or nausea and show signs of anxiety and depression (Egger, Costello and Angold, 2003:1). In addition, such children tend to be complaint and well behaved, and, unliketruants, they stay at home with the parents; knowledge. Some children tend to di splay characteristics of both school refusal and trauncy (Egger et al., 2003:1). Rayner and Riding (1996:447) undertooik a study on learners with school refusal and found that they also have a well-established history of truancy. The study revealed that these learners tend to process information holisticfally (ibid: 449). This reseach therefore indicates that the congnitive styles of many truants tend to differ from those of learners who are not ruants. Furthermore, an implication of the study is that if educators fail to accommodate the differnet cognitive styles in their teaching, escapist behaviour in the form of truancy is likely to occur. Poor habits arising form initially legitimate reason School factors There is a theory that proposes that truancy is caused by various aspects of the school (Carlen et al., 1992:86). This theory explains truancy as a response to an inadequate education system. It appears that this theory is based on the perception that the schools and the education system in general are lacking, and thus force some learners to reject the very education that is thought to give them a better future. Proponents and supporters of this perspective would therefore argue that what is happening in the schools and the education system in general is what actually makes learners became truants. Inadequacies could be those located in the physical enviromnet, the school climate in terms of the learing and teaching atmosphere and the curriculum, if it is seen asw being irrelevant and not accommodating diversity. The perceived inadequacies in the school might alienate some learners and thus make them freel excluded annd became truants. It is also possible that some learners may have certain attitudes towards aspects of the school such as the buildings, particular subject and educators. Learners may als perceive their value system as contradictory to the values espoused by the national curriculum and thus find that curruculum irrelevant. These contradicting values and attitudes towards the school can create a sense of disaffection that manifests in the form of truancy in some learners. The various factors within the school that most reswearchers have identifed as contributing to truancy are discussed in the next section. Dilapidated school buildings and poor facilities School size movement between classes during lesson changes classroom management Bullying Reid (1999) states that school refuters are sometimes pupils who have been threatened or bullied and are afraid to return to school [bullied victims] prefer to give other reasons for their absence to their parents and/or school rather than face the consequences of reporting the bullies (Pace, 2004, p. 6). On the other hand, children may be so worried about tensions at home (ibid., p. 6) that they feign being bullied at school in an effort to draw attention upon themselves, in the hope of thwarting any unpleasant family plans that are rendering them anxious. Child psychologist, Lisa Padovani (2205) graphically sums up bullying as follows: Bullying is the wilful, conscious desire to hurt, threaten or frighten someone. It can be a single attack on a person by an individual or a group or may be a longstanding campaign. Verbal abuse, taunting, threatening looks, emotional badgering, physical attack and sexual harrassment are all forms of direct bulling. Bullying may also be indrect ; for instance being ignored socially or the spreading of malicious gossip. Bullying therefore is not simply a conflict between bullies who are physically, verbally or socially stronger than victims who are generally unable to defend themselves in the actual situation (p.26). The Clark Report (2005) reveals that this phenomenon happened when teachers were not around to observe (p.29) and that reporting such incidents entailed further retaliation by the aggressor. Fenech ties the issue to alternative culures which clash with the mainstream culuter of the school (Bezzina, Cammilleri, Grima, Purchase and Sultana, 2002, p.25), consequently constangly landing bullies in trouble with teachers and administration. Findings of Azzopardi and Bondin (1991), and Cassar (1997) reveal that students did not mince their words in admitting that they attended school merely to meet friends and have fun. They rebelled against stringent school rules and consequently engaged in deviant acts like playing truant, drinking alohol and smoking on the school premises, as well as bullying (Fenech, 1992). Educator learner relationship Teaching or instructional approach Family and other social factors Socio- economic status of parents Marital Status of parents poor parental involvement and supervision Peer influence Violence and drug use Approaches used in the management and reducation of truancy Personality Aspects Tutoring and mentor systems Counselling and therapy Truanting learners who show signs of having emotional problems relating to poor social skills receive individual and or group therapy (Dais, 1999:2; Harworth and Bardsley, 1999:163). According to MacIidowie (1999:122), attendance increased by 7% in two schools in Kent when the Education Welfare Officers intervention mesures included councelling sessions. Edward and Malcom (2002:2) assert that a learning eviroment that provides support for emotional and social needs is likely to raise the achievement of learners who are at risk of playing truant. The effect of this kind of support is evident in a study of a project at Swanley School, where MacIldowie (1999:123) reports that the attendance pattern of eight of the 12 learners improved significantly as a result of regualr support. It appears that individuals are likely to benefit from sessions where they listen to others with similar experiences and problmes. For instance, the Attendance Officer at Calhoun Intermediate School District re ports that the dropout rate decreased by 10% to 2% when students became involved in the Absence Addict Programme, a support group that is modelled after Alcoholics Anonymous (Rocho, 2003:2). The School It is important to mention that strategies and initiatives that are used at the level of the individual learners also impact on the school in general. The approaches that are discussed in this section mainly address issues pertaining to reducing the impact ofr school factors as a step towrds the management of truancy. Data collected by Chircop (1997) shows that rather than the students or their families, it is the school which is to blame (Sultana, 1997 p.357). Quoting Corrigan (1979), Willis (1977) and Reid (1985), she declares that students absent themselves from school so as to Shelter themselves from what they consider to be an unpleasant experience to challenge the value of schooling itself, and/or to repond to pressures arising from their particular situation as classed and gendered beings and to which the school is insensitive (ibid., p357). The majority of disaffected students she interviewed attributed their non -a ttendance to the labelling processes prevalent in the Maltesed education system which encourages intra and inter school streaming. Selection ipso facto becames an important function of schooling, [and failure, in turn, became inevitable,] since they are required by the system (Sultana, 1997, p. 359). This gives rise to the lowering of teachers expectations and a vicious circle sets in. Eventually, demoralised students end up accepting the powerful labels used by teachers and think of themselces as [failures,] ignorant and incompetent (ibid., p.358). Bencini (2002) claims that children are being forced to sit through a syllabus which is not suited for their personalities: Instead of adapting our schools to students, we are trying to force students to adapt to our schools. WE need to provide students with things they enjoy doing (Zammit, 2003, p.7). Using reinforcement and reward systems Using a variety of intructional approaches Effective monitoring, registration and recording of attendance Welcome back to school Student Welfare In Service training Inter-departmenal cooperation and government intiatives Actung fast on Leraner absence Ordinances Attandeance or truancy officers Prosecuting parents Awareness campaigns Whole-school development Conclusion CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN Introduction The purpose of the study is to investigate the phenomenon of truancy and then to characterize the nature and associated factors, to ensure appropriate management thereof. It is envisaged that, with more insight, effective intervention strategies can be implemented. Furthermore, secondary -education decision -makers may take results into account when school-attendance policies are reviewed. The review of the literature presented in the preceding chapters reveals that secondary school learners continue to play truant and miss the educational opportunities provided by compulsory school regulations. Learners who play limit their own chances of acquiring the necessary skills to prepare themselves for future employment. We also looked at the different types of truancy , casual factors and various approaches that have been used to reduce truancy. This chapter describes the way the empirical study is planned and conducted, and will focus on the following aspects: The general and specific research problems and hypotheses The research method